Farm and industry workers are a growing population in the United States (U.S.) and are critical to the success of the agriculture industry. In 1993, the Migrant Legal Services estimated that there were 42,000 migrant and seasonal farm workers in the state of Virginia (Wilson, 1998). These workers are essential in the state's production of fruits, vegetable crops, and poultry. The 1995 National Agricultural Worker Survey (NAWS) indicated that 80% of farm workers in the U.S. are of Latino origin. Data from the Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (HHANES) reveals that Hispanics in the U.S. are at a greater risk for developing serious health problems, such as tuberculosis, cancer, diabetes mellitus, and hypertension, than the general population (HHANES, 1990). Latino farm and industry workers are reported to be at a high risk or developing nutrition-related health problems as a result of their low socioeconomic status and migratory lifestyles (Loria et al., 1995). Farm and industry workers also are at an increased risk of food insecurity due to low incomes, low literacy, poor health, migratory lifestyles, and lack of transportation (Shotland, 1989). The evidence from the literature suggest that long work hours, low wages, inconsistent work opportunities, and linguistic and cultural barriers may make it difficult for Latino farm/industry workers to meet their nutritional needs (Kowalski et al., 1999). About 30% to 40% of the Latino population fails to meet the minimum nutrient standards of the World Health Organization primarily due to poverty (Kittler and Suchar, 1998). A study was conducted to assess the nutrition, health, and food security problems, concerns, and perceived barriers of Latino farm/industry workers in Virginia because Virginia Cooperative Extension is concerned about the nutrition and health status of this important agricultural workforce. Triangulation techniques employing qualitative (focus group discussions and participatory activities) and quantitative (questionnaires) methodologies were utilized. Six focus group sessions were conducted with a total of 51 Latino farm/industry workers. Lack of money, time, transportation, and linguistic barriers were predominant themes that emerged from the focus group discussions related to health and nutrition concerns and barriers. Farm workers reported osteoporosis, anemia, urinary tract infections, and HIV/AIDS as top health concerns. Industry workers indicated gastritis, arthritis, and cancer as their top health concerns. Apples, bananas, oranges, and watermelon were the most commonly consumed fruits. Beans, tomatoes/onions, potatoes, and chili peppers were the most commonly consumed vegetables. Participants indicated that they preferred learning about health and nutrition from non-interactive sources, such as cassettes, radio, brochures, and television, due to lack of time and their migratory lifestyles. The Cornell/Radimer Food Security Questionnaire was administered to assess hunger and food insecurity. Approximately 98% of the 49 Latino farm and industry workers surveyed suffer from food insecurity. Females were more food insecure when compared to males. Data obtained from this study will be used to develop useful and culturally appropriate nutrition education strategies to improve dietary habits and overall health and nutrition status of Latino farm/industry workers and their families. / Master of Science

Current food production methods in the United States contribute to environmental degradation as well as food insecurity. Food production by means of community gardens has the potential to reduce the deleterious effects of current production methods. However, many community gardens face challenges that hinder their longevity, thereby reducing the likelihood of the support they might provide for environmentally sustainable food production and decreased food insecurity for community members. A behavioral systems science approach was combined with ethnographic research methods, matrix analysis, and a literature review regarding best practices for community gardens to study the cultural practices of three established community gardens in the southwest region of the US. The results of the analyses conducted are presented in terms of recommendations to support each target community garden's sustainability. Recommendations regarding future research include environmental manipulations to identify functional relations and potential outcome measures for improving the longevity of community gardens are provided.

The work described herein is situated in a larger study investigating regional food systems as a method for improving food access for vulnerable communities. This research is part of the United States Department of Agriculture's Agriculture and Food Research Initiative project titled Enhancing Food Security in the Northeast for Underserved Populations (EFSNE). This work is ongoing and currently in year five of five. One of the primary objectives in year five is to facilitate the development of Learning Communities in each of the eight communities participating in the study. To do so, the research team planned to develop tools and strategies for facilitation. The team identified a need to match strategies to the specific situation of each community. Thus, a tool was identified that might be useful in assessing the needs and readiness of the communities with respect to their access to healthy food sources. This research simultaneously evaluated the usefulness of the tool while assessing community readiness in six of the eight project communities. The tool used in this study, was a community level behavioral change model, the Community Readiness Model (CRM). The model was originally developed by the Tri-Ethnic Center in Colorado. We followed the CRM protocol for identifying participants. Twenty-four individuals from six locations involved in the EFSNE study participated in the interview process. The interviews were conducted using the semi-structured interview guide provided in the CRM protocol. We amended the guide by tailoring questions to address food access and ensuring questions were asked at the five levels of influence found in the Socio-Ecological Model. The final guide contained 40 questions; 18 were required by the protocol to score each community. Interviews were conducted by telephone by one researcher, transcribed, and then scored by two researchers according to the CRM protocol. The mean overall readiness score for the six communities assessed was 4.9 (SD 1.0). This score is firmly rooted in the pre-planning stage of readiness. Scores ranged from 3.7 to 6.2 on the 9-point scale. The CRM scoring protocol coupled with the overall readiness scores indicated that the three urban communities scored higher (mean 5.7, SD 0.6) than the three rural communities (mean 4.1, SD 0.7). While we found a utility to having scores on a continuum to quickly assess the communities of study, we found the qualitative data obtained from the interview process imperative to understanding the scores and the communities. We concluded that with a few amendments, the Community Readiness Model is a useful methodology to understand food access at the community level. Revealing the stages of readiness for food access change in the study communities contributed to our understanding of what types of programs exist for food access, what the communities' attitudes and feelings are around food access and guided strategy development for moving readiness for change forward. This lens also revealed that there is a need for education on existing and development of new food access policies. Furthermore, this work contributes to the practice of assessing community food security while simultaneously contributing to the development of parameters for community food security theory in food systems scholarship.

Thesis (M.Sc. Agriculture (Agricultural Economics)) -- University of Limpopo, 2018 / The Land Restitution Programme was designed to assist farmers through support for infrastructure, marketing, finance and extension services. This initiative was intended to support job creation, food security and support agricultural growth. Nevertheless, poverty and food insecurity have profound implications for health and welfare. However, household dietary diversity score has long been recognized by nutritionists as a key element of high-quality diets. This study examined the effects of the land restitution on households’ food security in Waterberg district. The objectives of this study were to profile households’ socioeconomic/ demographic characteristics, assess the food security status of land restitution beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries, examine the effects of Land Restitution Programme on food security and investigate the challenges faced by smallholder farmers in accessing land and other inputs for agricultural purposes in Waterberg district. Primary data was collected from 110 smallholder farmers using purposive and random sampling techniques. Dietary diversity score was used to assess the food security status of land restitution beneficiaries and non-beneficiaries while logistic regression model was used to examine the effect of Land Restitution Programme on their food security status. The results of dietary diversity score revealed that 70% of the households were food secure while 30% of the households are food insecure. The age of the household head, access to the market and land size were found to be positively significant at 10% level while beneficiary status was found to be positively related to food security status and significant at 5% level. Variables which were found positively significant at 1% level are gender of the household head, off-farm income and access to credit. Problems affecting households differs from lack of access to credit facilities to lack of grazing land. Based on the findings the study recommends prioritisation of women agricultural projects; diversification of income; provision of smallholder credit facilities in rural areas and provision land to farmers so that they increase their production which give them an advantage to become food secure. Key words: Dietary diversity, logit model, food security and Land restitution.

Since the late 1990's, "food deserts" have dominated the academic and policy literature on food access and food security. Food deserts are defined as areas that lack easy access to fresh, healthy, and affordable food, and are typically measured using Geographic Information Systems and spatial data sets. However, while food deserts may provide a useful measure for identifying food insecurity at a broad scale, they fail to account for individual definitions and perceptions of food access (Barnes et al. 2015; McEntee 2009). Furthermore, the food desert model assumes a lack of agency on the part of low-income populations (Alkon et al. 2013), and ignores other factors of food access, such as walkability, grocery store safety, customer service, and personal preference. In this research, I examine the food access perceptions of residents, non-profit employees, and business owners in the Lents neighborhood of Portland, Oregon. Although Lents is classified as a food desert, there is also an abundance of ethnic grocers and specialty markets within the neighborhood. These grocers reflect the neighborhood's racial and cultural diversity, and are often overlooked by the spatial datasets typically used to measure food access. The research that I conducted in Lents revealed a disconnect between how the residents I interviewed perceive their food environment, and how government, non-profits employees, and business owners within the neighborhood view local food access. The findings underscore the importance of factors other than physical proximity when measuring food access, and also show the importance of ethnic and specialty markets in the landscape. These findings support the assertion that binary measures of food access often fail to capture the complexities of individual perceptions of food access (Alkon et al. 2013).

More than 60% of the dairy products consumed in Swaziland are imported from South Africa. The Swaziland Dairy Board had established the dairy credit guarantee scheme with Swaziland Finance Development Cooperation to improve local dairy production and boost the livelihoods of smallholder dairy farmers. Unfortunately, the scheme was terminated without its effectiveness being evaluated. Therefore, the study set out to investigate the contribution of the dairy credit guarantee scheme to household food security. A total of 30 beneficiary households participated in the study. The data were collected through a structured questionnaire and analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 18.0). The households were compared in terms of the mean number of cows, milk production and volume of sales using the Duncan Multiple Range Test (DMRT). The dairy scheme was open to all qualifying smallholder dairy farmers, but most (86.7%) beneficiaries were male. The beneficiary households owned, on average, between one and eight cows between 2006 and 2009, and produced 188079 litres of milk on average per year. The highest income generated from milk sales was R74137.00 per year between 2006 and 2009. The lowest income from milk sales was R1020.00, from a household with the lowest number of dairy cows on average per year between 2006 and 2009. Beneficiaries reported that the increase in income enabled them to accumulate agricultural assets, increased food purchases and the diversification of livelihoods. Over 56.7% of the households were able to diversify their livelihoods by engaging in other income-generating projects such as poultry and pig production, horticulture, selling groceries and block (brick) making. With improved income especially milking households were able to increase food supply and this is indicated by their higher average Food Consumption Scores (75.58) than non-milking households (59.65). However, all the average Food Consumption Scores were above 42 which is a threshold level for acceptable nutrient intake, dietary diversity and this implies that the dairy production scheme led to improved dietary intake. In conclusion, the dairy credit scheme has the potential to improve local milk production and household food security. It is, therefore, recommended that the dairy scheme be revived, with better accessibility. The establishment of dairy development policy should be considered, in order to create a favourable environment for dairying and the promotion of cooperation among dairy development partners. This cooperation would help to avoid duplication of efforts among development partners and create a platform for interaction, sharing of information and exchange of ideas. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2011.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The current food system is failing to effectively serve the urban poor. The modernisation and globalisation of the food system solves one set of problems, regarding food security, but at the same time it results in the creation of other complex challenges. Technically the food system ensures adequate food availability on a macro scale, but the structure of the system contributes to the creation of food deserts. Food deserts are areas in which there is a lack of food retail outlets where affordable, nutritious food is available. Communities living in these areas usually struggle to obtain a nutritious diet and the residents are characterised as poverty-stricken and of a poor nutritional status. The aim of this research is to support local authorities in the management and strategic planning of community food security. The research was conducted in Avian Park, a low-income community in the Breede Valley of the Western Cape, South Africa. The food retail environment of Avian Park was investigated to determine the availability and accessibility of food in the community. Furthermore, a system dynamics model was developed to identify those areas in the food system which need attention, in order to achieve greater food security. In addition strategies are suggested to improve community food security; specifically for Avian Park. These research outcomes, however, also serve as a general guideline for managing food security in low-income communities more effectively. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die huidige voedsel sisteem slaag nie daarin om arm mense in stede effektief te dien nie. Die ontwikkeling en globalisering van die voedsel sisteem los een stel probleme rondom voedselsekerheid op, maar skep terselfdetyd ander komplekse uitdagings. Tegnies verseker die voedsel sisteem die beskikbaarheid van genoegsame voedsel op 'n makro skaal, maar die struktuur van die sisteem dra by tot die ontwikkeling van “food deserts.” “Food deserts” is areas waar daar „n tekort aan voedsel kleinhandel afsetpunte is waar daar bekostigbare, voedsame kos beskikbaar is. Gemeenskappe wat in hieride areas leef sukkel gewoonlik om „n voedsame dieet te bekom en die inwoners word geken aan armoede en 'n ongewenste voedingstatus. Die doel van hierdie navorsing is om plaaslike owerhede te ondersteun om gemeenskap voedselsekerheid meer efektief te bestuur. Die navorsing was in Avian Park, „n lae-inkomste gemeensakp in die Breede Vallei van die Wes-Kaap, Suid-Afrika uitgevoer. Die voedsel kleinhandel omgewing van Avian Park is ondersoek om die voedsel beskikbaarheid en toegangklikheid te bepaal. Verder is „n “system dynamics” model ontwikkel om die areas in die voeldsel sisteem wat aandag verg, ten einde voedselsekuriteit te bekom, te identifiseer. Ten slotte word daar strategieë voorgestel om gemeenskap voeldselsekuriteit in Avian Park te verbeter. Hierdie navorsingsuitkomste dien egter ook as algemene riglyne om lae inkomste gemeenskappe se voedselsekerheid meer effektief te bestuur.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / In recent times, debates on the connection between migration and development surfaced as essential discourses in contemporary development issues. Consequently, this led to the birth of what is currently popularly acknowledged or coined as the migration-development nexus. In addition, there has been an evolution of the food security topic in various developmental discussions. Nevertheless, little attention has been given to the relationship between international migration and food security in the context of development. Moreover, missing in the literature is the conversation on migration and food security with particular attention to youths who constitute a vulnerable yet economically active group. Furthermore, there has been an ongoing engaging debate on the impact of remittances, on one side macro-economists argue that remittances are important for the economies of migrant sending and receiving countries and view the use of remittances at the household level as destruction to growth and development. On the other, microeconomists are skeptical about the naïve view of the macroeconomists; on the contrary, they argue that the use of remittances at the household level is very vital for the livelihood of the poor and vulnerable societies. This thesis empirically investigated the link between youth migration and food security in the setting of Zimbabwean youths in Cape Town, South Africa, in the perspective of south-south migration, the New Economics of Labour Migration and Livelihood Approaches, consequently introducing what the researcher identifies as the youth migration-food security nexus. The thesis focused on three key themes: 1) reasons for youth migration in connection to food security 2) the importance of remittances on food security in the place of origin 3) levels of food insecurity of Zimbabwean youths in Cape Town. A combination of quantitative and qualitative research approach was applied in this study, where STATA version 12 statistical software was used for quantitative data analysis. The findings of this thesis reveal that there is an assenting link between youth migration and food security. Firstly, results point out that food insecurity or food shortage is one of the main causes of youth migration. Secondly, migration decision making is a collective and cooperative livelihood strategy used by many households or families. Thirdly, remittances from youths are vital for the livelihood of the people left in the place of origin and are primarily sent and used for food consumption. Lastly, although food security levels were still low there was an improvement of food security for youth migrants in Cape Town. Moreover, this research recognized a number of challenges that face migrant youths in their need for food security, which include (a) lack of reliable income to buy food, (b) poor utilization of food or consumption of unbalanced diet, and (c) limited research on migration and food security issues. In contextualizing these challenges, the study concludes with remarks and recommendations for policy makers, governments and nongovernmental establishments among other organizations.

The Village Market is a nonprofit Healthy Corner Store that has been open since May of 2011 in the mixed-use, mixed-income New Columbia housing development in Portland, Oregon's Portsmouth neighborhood. The venture began as a "community-led" effort in partnership with Janus Youth Programs and Home Forward. The project was conceived after a private enterprise in the small grocery space designed into the development failed, leaving the neighborhood without easy access to healthy foods. This dissertation is a case study of the development process, the operation of the market, and the degree to which it addresses food justice and health equity concerns, among others, of residents. It is a case study of the Healthy Corner Store movement that uses food regime theory and political economy perspectives to critically examine the translation of Healthy Corner Store movement theory into practice, highlighting the perspectives of New Columbia residents on the endeavor. It explores the transition of the store from a community-led project to a management-led social enterprise, and the impacts of that approach on local autonomy, food justice, health equity as well as its successes and shortcomings. The store's situation in a mixed-income community meant that it had a particularly diverse set of expectations to navigate, and the changes to the store over time reflect Village Market's growing understanding of the implications of that situation but also a limited capacity to accommodate residents' differing tastes and the price sensitivity that many of them exhibit in their shopping habits.

The purpose of this dissertation is to examine how the People’s Republic of China has used domestic and foreign policy to achieve and maintain food security. This is a formidable task for the PRC given that it has 20% of the world’s population and only 7% of its arable land. It has been made more formidable by domestic policy errors and its changing position within the international system. The PRC has evolved from a Marxist revisionist state to one that mixes state capitalism and free enterprise and has become a combination of revisionist and status quo. Such changes lend themselves to process-tracing as a methodology in order to reveal the rationale behind the change and the resulting impact on food security. To capture this evolution, a food paradigm is constructed for various eras that reflect domestic influences on food security. To this is added the international aspect; the choice of what countries it would or could trade with, as needed. Together the domestic and international are combined to obtain a complete view of the food paradigm and resulting food security situation for each era. In pursuing food security this dissertation will focus on rice, wheat, soybeans, and maize, the prime grains for human consumption and animal feed in the PRC. These grains provide much of the caloric intake of the population as well as being the prime reserve products. The results show that these products have been used as a tool of foreign policy to reward or punish other states by adjusting their imports and exports to send political messages as seen fit. The PRC has always maintained a diversified import supply base, but as imports have continued to grow, the supply base is expanding. Expansion is not through land-grabbing but by contract growing by local farmers in less developed countries and leasing land in developed countries, both on previously uncultivated lands. Simultaneously, there are efforts to improve grain production in African countries, among others. Increasing output there will increase total world supply, an indirect benefit to the PRC food security and to its image abroad.