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<p>In this thesis work, two new CO₂-responsive monomers have been synthesized. These amidine-containing monomers were prepared in a simple and effective one-step reaction, giving a very high yield (98.5 %) of product. Furthermore, there was no complicated further purification required to obtain the highly pure product. The CO₂ switchability, conductivity and partitioning of the monomers were measured. It was confirmed that the monomers could be protonated CO₂ in the present of trace amount of water and reversibly switched back and forth to their natural forms by N₂ at room temperature.</p> <p>The polymers having different molecular weights were prepared from one monomer via conventional free radical polymerization method. The polymers also showed the reversible switchability property with CO₂ and N₂ stimuli. This was confirmed by the results of conductivity and partitioning tests. Temperature showed a major influence on the conductivity of the monomer and polymers. The effect of molecular weight on the polymer switchability of was further investigated through conductivity tests and potentiometric titration. The conductivity decreased with the increased molecular weight. The apparent equilibrium constant (pK_a)decreased with the degree of protonation (δ) suggesting that the basicity of the polymers is strongly depended on the value of δ.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Dimethacrylate monomers containing two cleavable tert-butyl ester groups were synthesized and utilized in the synthesis of star-shaped polymers. Star polymer coupling was achieved by reacting the living poly(alkyl methacrylate) using 2,5-dimethyl-2,5-hexanediol dimethacrylate (DHDMA) or dicumyl dimethacrylate (DCDMA). These starshaped polymers were cleaved under hydrolytic conditions, leading to significant reductions in molecular weights. The cleavable star-shaped polymers also underwent uncatalyzed degradation at elevated temperatures. Pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) copolymers based on 2-ethylhexyl acrylate (EHA) were synthesized containing cleavable branching comprised of either DHDMA or DCDMA. Extremely high molecular weight branched polymers were obtained, and these branched adhesives exhibited 180° peel strengths that displayed a strong dependence on the weight-average molecular weights. The PSA branching sites were cleaved via acid-catalyzed hydrolysis, drastically lowering the 1180° peel strengths of the cleaved linear polymers between 75 and 95 percent. Branched poly (EHA) PSAs containing 2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate (HEMA) and ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA), as well as poly(EHA-co-HEMA), were synthesized and modified with photoactive functional groups. Cinnamate functionalized PSAs underwent photocrosslinking under UV light, leading to significant losses in 180° peel strengths. The acrylate functionalized PSAs were mixed with a photoinitiator, and following crosslinking under visible light, these PSAs exhibited excellent deactivation characteristics. Poly(methyl methacrylate) containing aliphatic diols were synthesized via anionic polymerization utilizing the novel protected functional co-initiator 1,1-bis-, 4'-(2-(tertbutyldimethylsilyloxy) ethoxy)phenylethylene (BTOPE). Following the coupling of BTOPE with sec-butyl lithium, methyl methacrylate was polymerized in living fashion at -78 °C in THF. A broad molecular weight range of BTOPE-initiated PMMA samples were synthesized, and molecular weight distributions were as low as 1.03 were observed. Hydrolytic deprotection of the protecting groups resulted in α,α-dihydroxy PMMA. The graft macromonomers poly(tert-butyl styrene-block-styrene) methacrylate and poly(styrene-block-tert-butyl styrene) methacrylate were synthesized from the corresponding diblock copolymer alcohols utilizing acid chloride chemistry. Excellent molecular weight control, narrow molecular weight distributions, and perfect crossover were observed in both types of diblock polymers. The macromonomers were copolymerized with methyl methacrylate via solution free-radical copolymerization. The styrene blocks in the purified graft copolymers were selectively sulfonated using acetyl sulfate. / Ph. D.

High molecular weight star-shaped polystyrenes were prepared via the coupling of 2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-1-piperidinyloxy (TEMPO) terminated polystyrene oligomers with divinylbenzene (DVB) in m-xylene at 138 °C. Linear polystyrene oligomers (Mn = 19,300 g/mol, Mw/Mn = 1.10) were synthesized in bulk styrene using benzoyl peroxide in the presence of TEMPO at approximately 130 °C. In situ mid-infrared spectroscopy was successfully utilized to follow initiation, monomer conversion, and polymer formation. Real-time data allowed for the determination of apparent rate constants of 2.1E-5 s⁻¹ at 132 °C and 1.2E-5 s⁻¹ at 126 °C from the profile of the decaying styrene vinyl carbon-hydrogen (=CH₂) absorbance at 907 cm⁻¹. Coupling of the TEMPO terminated oligomers under optimum conditions resulted in a compact and dense product with a number average molecular weight exceeding 300,000 g/mol (Mw/Mn = 3.03) after 24 h, suggesting the formation of relatively well-defined star-shaped polymers. Synthetic factors that affected the molecular weight, yield, and composition of maleic anhydride (MAH), norbornene (Nb), and tert-butyl 5-norbornene-2-carboxylate (NbTBE) terpolymers were investigated. Pseudo first order kinetic analysis using in situ FTIR indicated that the observed rate of reaction was a strong function of the Nb/NbTBE ratio with a maximum of 6.7E-5 s⁻¹ for a 50/0/50 Nb/NbTBE/MAH monomer ratio and a minimum of 1.1E-5 s⁻¹ for a 0/50/50 Nb/NbTBE/MAH ratio. Polymer yields were also observed to be a function of the Nb/NbTBE ratio and also decreased with increasing NbTBE. Calculated work of adhesion values (Wadh) values were observed to increase as the content of NbTBE was increased. 193 nm photoresist formulations incorporating polymers with high NbTBE content showed increased imaging performance using 193 nm light and successfully produced sharp and defined features as small as 110 nm, which was demonstrated via scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Additional functionality was introduced via the copolymerization of MAH with several norbornene (Nb) derivatives that were synthesized from facile Diels-Alder cycloaddition reactions of cyclopentadiene with a-olefins containing electron withdrawing groups. Subsequent hydrolysis of the anhydride offered further versatility and provided an avenue to introduce aqueous base solubility into Nb/MAH copolymers. / Ph. D.

The objective of this study was to determine the photothermal and photochemical tissue response to carbon nanotube inclusion in laser therapy using experimental and computational methods. In this study, we specifically considered varying types and concentrations (0.01-1 mg/ml) of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), e.g., multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), and single-walled carbon nanohorns (SWNHs). In order to determine the photothermal effect of CNT inclusion, the thermal conductivity and optical properties of tissue representative phantoms with CNT inclusion were measured. Thermal conductivity of tissue phantoms containing CNTs was measured using the hot wire probe method. For identical CNT concentrations, phantoms containing MWNTs had the highest thermal conductivity. Optical properties (absorption and reduced scattering coefficients) of solutions and tissue phantoms containing carbon nanotubes were measured with spectrophotometry and determined by the inverse adding doubling (IAD) method. Inclusion of CNTs in phantoms increased light absorption with minimal effect on scattering and anisotropy. Light absorption of MWNTs was found to be higher than SWNTs and SWNHs. The photochemical response to laser irradiation (wavelength 1064 nm) of CNTs was measured with spin-trap electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Only SWNHs appeared to produce significant levels of ROS production in response to laser excitation in the presence of NADH. We detected the predominant presence of trapped hydroxyl radical (•OH) with a trace of the trapped super oxide (O2•-) radical. These free radicals are highly reactive and could be utilized to cause targeted toxicity to cancer cells. The distribution of CNTs at the cellular level, in phantoms, and in kidney tumors was measured using transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging. Samples were imaged following various time periods (2-48h) of incubation and CNTs were observed inside the cell cytoplasm, nucleus, vacuole, and outside cells for the above mentioned time periods. CNTs in phantoms and tumor tissue were randomly and uniformly distributed in the entire volume. Computational model geometries were developed based on CNTs distribution in cells, tissue phantoms, and kidney tumor tissue. In the computational part of this research the temperature response to laser irradiation alone or with CNT inclusion was determined using Penne's bioheat equation which was solved by finite element methods. Experimentally measured thermal conductivity and absorption and reduced scattering coefficients were used as input parameters in Penne's bioheat equation. The accuracy of the model predicted temperature distribution was determined by comparing it to experimentally measured temperature in tissue phantoms and kidney tumors following CNT inclusion and laser therapy. The model determined temperature distribution was in close correspondence with the experimentally measured temperature. Our computational model can predict the effectiveness of laser cancer therapy by predicting the transient temperature distribution. / Ph. D.

Cerium oxide nanoparticles have the unique ability to accept and donate electrons, making them powerful antioxidants. Their redox nature is due to oxygen defects in the lattice structure, which are more abundant at the nanoscale. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are pro-oxidants whose presence is increased during periods of inflammation in the body. ROS damage tissues and cellular function by stripping electrons from proteins, lipids, and DNA. We investigated the ability of nanoceria to quench ROS in vitro and in vivo, and examined the biodistribution and biocompatibility of nanoceria in murine models. Nanoceria was internalized in vitro by macrophages, is non-toxic at the concentrations we investigated, and proteins, mRNA, and oxidative markers of ROS were abated with nanoceria pretreatment in immune stimulated cells as measured by western blot, real time RT PCR, and Greiss assay respectively. In vivo, nanoceria was deposited in the spleen and liver, with trace amounts in the lungs and kidneys as determined by ICP-MS. Using IVIS in vivo imaging, it appeared that nanoceria deposition occurred in lymph tissue. Histology grades show no overt pathology associated with nanoceria deposition, although white blood cell (WBC) counts were generally elevated with nanoceria treatment. Nanoceria suspect particles were seen in lysosomes from kidney samples of IV injected mice in HRTEM images. Lastly, IV nanoceria treatment appears to reduce markers of oxidative stress in mice treated with carbon tetrachloride (CCl4) to induce ROS production. Taken together, our data suggest that nanoceria treatment has the potential to reduce oxidative stress. / Master of Science

Free radicals are produced in lignin during mechanical treatment and irradiation with light of various wavelengths. During mechanical treatment, the lignin macromolecule is degraded severely as revealed by ESR and viscosity measurements. Several types of mechano-radicals are produced in lignin during the mechanical process. Among these the phenoxy radicals are rather stable, where carbon-radicals are labile at ambient conditions. Transient mechano-radicals reacted readily with oxygen molecules to produce peroxy radicals even at 77°K, but they decayed rapidly at ambient temperature. Photodegradation of lignin was observed when macromolecule was irradiated with light of λ<3500 Å as revealed by ESR, viscosity, and weight loss. Phenoxy radicals are the predominant intermediates in the photoirradiated lignin as shown by ESR studies. Elimination of side chains of lignin phenyl propane units took effect in α-carbonyl group bearing molecules. By contrast, β aryl ether substituents adjacent to α-carbonyl groups caused ether cleavage under identical conditions of photoirradiation. This is attributed to energy transferred from excited α-carbonyl groups to the ether bonds. The α-carbonyl groups also functioned as photosensitizers accelerating photochemical reactions of lignin. Termination and decomposition reactions of mechano-radicals and photoinduced free radicals in lignin ultimately lead to the formation of para- and ortho-quinones, carbonyl groups, and double bonds which cause the color of lignin. These potential choromophoric groups can be partially removed from lignin by using ultraviolet light of λ> 4000 Å; and they can be completely removed by irradiation of lignin in the presence of dioxane-water with light of λ>3500 Å. Experimental findings suggest chat chromophoric groups in lignin were being trapped or blocked by dioxanyl radicals resulting in brightening. However, the photoreduced lignin-adduct suffered color reversion. This adverse effect can be prevented by using 2-hydroxy-4-methoxy-benzophenone as a photostabilizer. The feasibility of applying photoreduction techniques to high- yield pulps was demonstrated. However, optimal experimental conditions for photoreduction of lignin in high-yield pulps have not been established yet. / Ph. D.

No / This study was designed to investigate the nutraceutical potential of monofloral Indian mustard bee pollen (MIMBP). MThe nutritional value of MIMBP was examined in terms of proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and energy value. Its chemical composition in terms of total polyphenol and flavonoid content was determined. MIMBP was screened for free flavonoid aglycones by developing and validating a high-performance liquid chromatography-photo diode array (HPLC-PDA) method. MIMBP was analyzed for in vitro antioxidant effect in terms of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity. MIMBP was found to be comprised of proteins ((182.2+/-5.9) g/kg), fats ((137.7+/-6.8) g/kg) and carbohydrates ((560.6+/-17.4) g/kg), which result in its high energy value ((17 616.7+/-78.6) kJ/kg). MIMBP was found to contain polyphenols ((18 286.1+/-374.0) mg gallic acid equivalent/kg) and flavonoids ((1 223.5+/-53.1) mg quercetin equivalent/kg). The HPLC-PDA analysis revealed the presence of kaempferol ((65.4+/-0.5) mg/kg) and quercetin ((51.4+/-0.4) mg/kg) in MIMBP, which can be used as markers for determining the quality of bee pollen. The MIMBP extract showed DPPH free radical-scavenging activity with a half maximal inhibitory concentration of 54.79 mug/mL. The MIMBP was found to be a rich source of nutrients providing high caloric value, which makes it a candidate for a potential nutraceutical agent. The study also illustrated the high antioxidant content of MIMBP, especially in the principle polyphenols and flavonoids, which suggests its potential role in the prevention of free radical-implicated diseases. The DPPH-scavenging effect of MIMBP further confirmed its antioxidant potential. Additionally, we developed a simple, specific and accurate HPLC-PDA method for the identification and quantification of free flavonoid aglycones. This can be applied in future screenings of the quality of pollen collected by honeybees.