Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The development of fast and efficient processors, programmable devices and high power semiconductors has led to the increased use of semiconductors directly in the power supply path in order to achieve strict power quality standards. New and advanced algorithms are used in the process and calculated on-line to bring about the required fast response to voltage variations. Losses in high voltage semiconductors increase with increased operating frequencies. A balance between semiconductor power losses and power quality is achieved through control of power semiconductor switching frequencies. A predictive control algorithm to achieve high power quality and limit the power losses in the high power semiconductor switches through switching frequency control is discussed for a tap switched voltage regulator. The quality of power, voltage regulator topology and the control algorithm are discussed. Simulation results of output voltage and current are shown when the control algorithm is used to control the regulator. These results are verified by practical measurements on a synchronous buck converter. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die ontwikkeling van vinnige en doeltreffende verwerkers, programmeerbare toestelle en hoëdrywings halfgeleiers het gelei tot 'n groter gebruik van halfgeleiers direk in die kragtoevoer pad om streng elektriese toevoer kwaliteit standaarde te bereik. Nuwe en gevorderde algoritmes word gebruik in die proses en word aan-lyn bereken om die nodige vinnige reaksie tot spanningswisselinge te gee. Verliese in hoë-spannings halfgeleiers verhoog met hoër skakel frekwensies. 'n Balans tussen die halfgeleier drywingsverliese en spanningskwalteit is behaal deur die skakel frekwensie in ag te neem in die beheer. 'n Voorspellinde-beheer algoritme om ‘n hoë toevoerkwaliteit te bereik en die drywingsverliese in die hoëdrywingshalfgeleier te beperk, deur skakel frekwensie te beheer, is bespreek vir 'n tap-geskakelde spanning reguleerder. Die toevoerkwaliteit, spanningsreguleerder topologie en die beheer algoritme word bespreek. Simulasie resultate van die uittree-spanning en stroom word getoon wanneer die beheer algoritme gebruik word om die omsetter te beheer. Hierdie resultate is deur praktiese metings op 'n sinkrone afkapper.

[pt] A crescente demanda de energia elétrica faz com que a complexidade dos sistemas elétricos de potência seja cada vez maior, associado às limitações na expansão do sistema de transmissão, resulta na operação dos sistemas elétricos mais próximos de seus limites, tornando-os vulneráveis a problemas de estabilidade de tensão. Nesse contexto, faz-se necessário o desenvolvimento de ferramentas computacionais capazes de representar os sistemas elétricos mais adequadamente, melhorando assim as condições de análise. Neste trabalho são apresentadas três modelagens do fluxo de carga mais completas que a modelagem clássica, a saber: a modelagem de múltiplas barras swing, a modelagem com regulação primária e a modelagem com parâmetros da rede de transmissão variáveis com a frequência. Uma vez utilizadas na solução do problema do fluxo de carga estas modelagens são estendidas para a realização do cálculo dos índices de estabilidade de tensão das barras de carga, barras de tensão controlada e barras swing. Testes numéricos com um sistema-teste de 6 barras são apresentados para a verificação da aplicabilidade e adequação dos modelos analisados. / [en] The growing demand for electricity increases the complexity of electric power systems which, when combined with limitations in the expansion of transmission systems, results in the operation of electrical systems closer to their limits, making them vulnerable to voltage stability problems. In this context, there is a gap in the market for the development of computational tools that can represent the electrical systems more appropriately, thereby improving the conditions of analysis. The present study formulates three non-classical load flow representations: multiple swing buses, primary frequency control, and frequency dependent transmission network parameters. Once used in the load flow problem solving, these models are also extended to allow the calculation of voltage stability indices of load buses, controlled voltage buses and swing buses. Numerical tests with a 6-bus test system are presented to verify the applicability and adequacy of the proposed models.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In the last decade there has been a significant increase in interest in microgeneration technologies for electric power. Sources of hydraulic power generation, wind and solar technologies represent some of the important developments that have had arising from the research efforts aimed at this area of power generation. The reason for this interest is due to the consolidation of what is called future in terms of power generation, which is based on decentralization of power generation through interconnected centers of small generators / consumers. At distribution level, distributed generation sources, together with the loads connected to its bus, forms what is defined as a microgrid. Depending on the instantaneous load and installed generation capacity, a microgrid can behave as a point of consumption or generation of energy at different times, being able to operate also connected to the network or islanded form according to the quality energy supplied or need in case of system failure. Among the technologies of microgeneration, micro hydro power plants with selfexcited induction generators (SEIG) came to represent an excellent option for electricity generation in isolated areas, mainly due to its characteristics of robustness and low cost, compared to synchronous machines. It is an alternative to the use of synchronous generators in low-power systems powered by small hydroelectric plants, rich in our country. In this sense, this Master's thesis deals with the modeling and control of a micro hydro power plant with SEIG with frequency and voltage control. The frequency control is achieved by controlling the opening of the feeding system of the turbine while the voltage control is performed through the control of reactive power of the set, using for this a Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) inverter. 10 Based on these definitions and knowledge acquired, it was proposed a system to be implemented experimentally, consisting of a micro hydro power plant, in this case a motor driven by a voltage PWM inverter, emulating the behavior of a turbine coupled to the induction generator. The terminals of the SEIG feed a bus where loads with different characteristics are connected, featuring a microgrid, having as main goal the control of the voltage and frequency stability of the energy supplied by the generator to the isolated system. Among the studies developed for the implementation of the prototype is possible to highlight: three-phase system modeling, hydraulic system modeling, voltage and frequency control, and synchronization method. Throughout this paper, simulations and experimental results are presented in order to be demonstrated the applicability of control methods, their performance and technical feasibility of the system. / Na última década houve um aumento significativo no interesse em tecnologias aplicáveis a microgeração de energia elétrica. Fontes de geração de energia hidráulicas, eólicas e solares representam algumas das tecnologias que tiveram importantes evoluções decorrentes dos esforços em pesquisas destinados a esta área de geração de energia. A razão para tal interesse se deve a consolidação do que é chamado futuro em termos de geração de energia, sendo este baseado na descentralização da geração de energia através de redes interligadas de pequenos centros geradores/consumidores. A nível de distribuição, as fontes de geração distribuída, juntamente com as cargas conectadas ao seu barramento, formariam o que é definido como uma micro-rede. Dependendo da carga instantânea e da capacidade de geração instalada, uma micro-rede pode comportar-se como um ponto de consumo ou de geração de energia em diferentes momentos, sendo capaz também de operar conectada à rede ou de forma ilhada de acordo com a qualidade da energia fornecida ou necessidade do sistema em caso de falta. Dentre as tecnologias de microgeração, as micro centrais hidrelétricas (MCH) com geradores de indução auto-excitados (GIAE) passaram a representar uma excelente opção para a geração de energia elétrica em áreas isoladas, devido basicamente as suas características de robustes e baixo custo, quando comparadas às máquinas síncronas. Trata-se de uma alternativa ao uso de geradores síncronos em sistemas de baixa potência acionados por pequenos aproveitamentos hidrelétricos, ricos em nosso território nacional. Neste sentido, a presente Dissertação de Mestrado trata da modelagem e controle de uma MCH com GIAE com controle de frequência e tensão. O controle de frequência é obtido a partir do controle de abertura do sistema de alimentação da turbina enquanto que, o controle de tensão é realizado a partir do controle da potência reativa do conjunto, utilizando para isso um inversor de tensão. Partindo destas definições e dos conhecimentos adquiridos, foi proposto um sistema a ser implementado experimentalmente, composto de uma micro central hidrelétrica, neste caso um motor acionado por um inversor de tensão, emulando o comportamento de uma turbina hidráulica, acoplado ao gerador de indução. Os terminais do GIAE alimentam um barramento onde são conectadas cargas com características distintas, caracterizando uma micro-rede, tendo como objetivo o controle da estabilidade da tensão e frequência da energia fornecida pelo gerador ao sistema isolado. Dentre os estudos desenvolvidos para a implementação do protótipo é possível destacar: modelagem do sistema trifásico considerado, modelagem do sistema hidráulico, controle de tensão e frequência e método de sincronismo. Ao longo desta dissertação, resultados de simulações e experimentais são apresentados, a fim de que, seja demonstrada a aplicabilidade dos métodos de controle, seus desempenhos e a viabilidade técnica do sistema.

The purpose of this paper is to show that the software ScicosLab can be used as an interesting and effective computational tool to analyze the automatic generation control of electric power systems. Firstly it is presented the software and, afterwards, the concepts and definitions of rotational movements in order to develop mathematical models for the generators equipped with steam turbines or hydraulic turbines and speed governors, and for their electrical loads. For the studies it is used a system comprised by two distinct interconnected areas where a load increase in one area is simulated without/with the tieline, ignoring, and then considering the primary and supplementary controls. Finally, it is analyzed a more realistic system with three distinct areas extracted from the Brazilian power system. The computational results show graphically the variations of the two main quantities of interest: the frequency of each area of the system and the tieline power. These quantities allow the evaluation of the system behavior after a disturbance that affects the generation-load balance. Within the above context, it is verified that the ScicosLab computer package effectively models and simulates the load-frequency control of power systems, qualifying, therefore, as an excellent alternative to replace any similar program which requires license payment. / A proposta deste trabalho é mostrar que o software ScicosLab pode ser utilizado como uma ferramenta computacional, interessante e eficaz, para analisar o controle automático de geração de sistemas elétricos de potência. Inicialmente é apresentado o software e, em seguida, os conceitos de movimentos rotativos que permitem desenvolver os modelos matemáticos para os geradores equipados com turbinas a vapor ou hidráulica e reguladores de velocidade, e para suas cargas elétricas. Para possibilitar os estudos é utilizado um sistema constituído por duas áreas distintas interligadas, onde é simulado um aumento de carga em uma destas áreas, sem e com a linha de interligação, desconsiderando e, em seguida, considerando os controles primário e suplementar. Finalmente, analisa-se um sistema mais realístico com três áreas distintas extraído do sistema elétrico brasileiro. Os resultados computacionais mostram graficamente as variações das duas principais grandezas de interesse: a frequência de cada área do sistema e a potência da linha de interligação. Estas grandezas permitem avaliar o comportamento do sistema após uma perturbação que afeta o balanço geração-carga. Considerando o exposto acima, constata-se que o pacote computacional ScicosLab modela e simula eficazmente o controle carga-frequência de sistemas elétricos de potência, qualificando-se, portanto, como uma excelente alternativa para substituir qualquer programa similar que exige pagamento de licença. / Mestre em Ciências

Hydropower is a flexible energy source that is essential for balancing the electrical power system on all timescales, from seconds to years. In addition to intra-hour regulation, it provides frequency containment reserves (FCR-N,FCR-D) and frequency restoration reserves (mFRR, aFRR) to the grid. The turbine governor is a device responsible for controlling the power output and delivering frequency control to the system. The aim of this Master’s Thesis project is to develop a new hydropower turbine governor in MATLAB/Simulink, which contains all critical functionality from the existing governor and with the same performance. The new governor should as far as possible comply to the well-established communication standard IEC 61850. A working model of the turbine governor has been built in Simulink that supports normal operation with frequency control, start and stop, load rejection, operation mode as synchronous condenser and more. Validations of the model against data from Akkats powerplant shows that the model behaves as a real governor during normal operation. Validations of the start sequence showed deviations during sequence 3 and 4 which can be explained by usage of different PID parameters. Using IEC 61850 as a nomenclature and as a way of structuring functions in the governor has also been possible. Implementing the whole standard for communication, requires that the control system also is renewed according to IEC 61850. Certain functions, as sequencing has thus not been done according to the standard. MATLAB and Simulink provide tools for building, simulating and testing implementations of the turbine governor. The contributions this platform can provide are; ease of implementation, optimization and testing of control strategies. Simulink also provides a graphical interface, which reduce system complexity. An optimal implementation requires a hardware with support for Simulink to get a transparent platform. Ultimately, these benefits could result in better frequency quality at a lower cost, which is essential for successful and cost-effective integration of other renewable energy sources such as wind- and solar power.

The radical changes that are currently occurring in the nature of power systems means that in the future it may no longer be possible to guarantee security of supply using offline security assessment and planning. The increased uncertainty, particularly the reduction and variation in system inertia that will be faced in the future must be overcome through the use of adaptive online solutions for ensuring system security. The introduction of synchronised measurement technology means that the wide area real time measurements that are necessary to implement these online actions are now available.The objective of the research presented in this thesis was to create methods for predicting the post-disturbance frequency behaviour of a power system with the intent of contributing to the development of real time adaptive corrective control for future power systems. Such a prediction method would generate an online prediction based on wide area measurements of frequency and active power that are recorded within the period of approximately one second after a disturbance to the active power balance of the system. Predictions would allow frequency control to respond more quickly and efficiently as it would no longer be necessary to wait for the system frequency behaviour to violate pre-determined thresholds.The research presented in this thesis includes the creation of an online method for the simultaneous detection of the time at which a disturbance occurred in a power system, or area of a power system, and the estimation of the inertia of that system, or area. An existing prediction method based on approximate models has been redesigned to eliminate its dependence on offline information. Furthermore, the thesis presents the novel application of pattern classification theory to frequency prediction and a five class example of pattern classification is implemented.

In this study, an innovative solution is examined for transmission problems and frequency control for wind Turbines. Power electronics and the gear boxes are the parts which are responsible of a significant amount of failures and they are increasing the operation and maintenance cost of wind turbines. Continuously transmission (CVT) systems are investigated as an alternative for conventional gear box technologies for wind turbines in terms of frequency control and power production efficiency. Even though, it has being used in the car industry and is proven to be efficient, there are very limited amount of studies on the CVT implementation on wind turbines. Therefore, this study has also an assertion on being a useful mechanical analyse on that topic. After observing several different types of possibly suitable CVT systems for wind turbines; a blade element momentum code is written in order to calculate the torque, rotational speed and power production values of a wind turbine by using aerodynamic blade properties. Following to this, a dynamic model is created by using the values founded by the help of the blade element momentum theory code, for the wind turbine drive train both including and excluding the CVT system. Comparison of these two dynamic models is done, and possible advantages and disadvantages of using CVT systems for wind turbines are highlighted. The wind speed values, which are simulated according to measured wind speed data, are used in order to create the dynamic models, and Matlab is chosen as the software environment for modelling and calculation processes. Promising results are taken out of the simulations for both in terms of energy efficiency and frequency control. The wind turbine model, which is using the CVT system, is observed to have slightly higher energy production and more importantly, no need for power electronics for frequency control. As an outcome of this study, it is possible to say that the CVT system is a candidate of being a research topic for future developments of the wind turbine technology.

[pt] Cada dia a operação dos sistemas elétricos de energia é mais complexo. Mantiver um correto fornecimento da energia de forma empírica é uma tarefa difícil e pouco confiável, este trabalho se realizou para ajudar a atender com maior confiabilidade este fornecimento de energia. Neste trabalho apresentam-se modelagens de fluxo de carga para obter diferentes pontos de operação. Modelou-se a regulação própria da carga e o controle carga-frequência das unidades geradoras, incluindo regulação primária e secundária. As modelagens são estendidas para a avaliação da estabilidade de tensão, inclusive considerando-se a influência da frequência. A avaliação foi feita em pontos de operação antes e após a atuação do controle carga-frequência. Em cada caso, as variações de carga ou geração das barras em análise (infinitesimais) são absorvidas pelos geradores de diferentes formas: de acordo com os fatores de proporcionalidade na regulação secundária, com as energias de regulação na regulação primária ou com a proporcionalidade das gerações das barras swing no despacho proporcional. De acordo com o apresentado neste trabalho obtêm-se pontos de operação em regime permanente, nestes pontos de operação foi onde se realizo o cálculo da estabilidade de tensão para todas as barras do sistema. Os sistemas testados tiveram 6 e 39 barras. / [en] Each day the operation of electric power system is more complex. Maintain a correct supply of energy empirically is difficult and unreliable task, this work was realized to comply with more reliably this power supply. This dissertation presents the modeling of power flow to get different steady state. The load response to frequency deviation, the primary and the secondary frequency control were models. The models are extended to the evaluation of voltage stability, even considering the frequency influence. The evaluation is done in the state before and after the response of load-frequency control. In each case, the generators units absorb the variation (infinitesimal) in the load or in the generation (bus in analysis) in different ways: according to the proportionality factor in the secondary control, the speed regulations in the primary control or the proportionality of the swing bus generation in the proportional dispatch. According to the presented in this dissertation was obtained a state in permanent regime, in this state was evaluated the voltage stability in all bus of the system. The tested system had 6 and 39 bus.

[pt] O aumento da penetração de fontes de energia intermitentes é uma realidade dentro da matriz energética brasileira. A utilização em larga escala de energia renovável diminui a flexibilidade operativa com a redução da inércia equivalente sincronizada no sistema, podendo colocar em risco a segurança e a qualidade do suprimento de energia dos sistemas elétricos de potência com a diminuição da capacidade de regulação de frequência. Com expectativas de crescimento acentuado, surgem os dispositivos de armazenamento de energia (Energy Storage Devices – ESD) como uma alternativa viável para contornar essas dificuldades, principalmente quando se trata de um sistema de potência isolado. Nesta dissertação, avalia-se o comportamento dinâmico do sistema elétrico do estado de Roraima, através de uma metodologia desenvolvida para quantificar a penetração de energia renovável intermitente em sistemas isolados. Avalia-se também como a utilização de dispositivos de armazenamento de energia podem contribuir para o controle de frequência, observando as vantagens que tais dispositivos podem acarretar nesse sistema. A construção do Mapa de Decisão pode auxiliar as análises tanto na etapa de planejamento como na fase de programação e operação dos sistemas. Nas simulações realizadas foi possível constatar que a utilização de ESD pode promover um aumento significativo na penetração de usinas renováveis intermitentes, como eólica e solar fotovoltaica, em sistemas de potência isolados / [en] The increase in the penetration of intermittent energy sources is a reality within the Brazilian energy matrix. The large-scale use of renewable energy decreases the operational flexibility with the reduction of the equivalent inertia synchronized in the system, which can endanger the safety and quality of the energy supply of electric power systems with the reduction of the frequency regulation capacity. With expectations of sharp growth, energy storage devices (ESD) appear as a feasible alternative to overcome these difficulties, particularly when it comes to an isolated power network. In this dissertation, the dynamic assessment of the electrical system of the state of Roraima is evaluated, using a methodology developed to quantify the penetration of intermittent renewable energy in isolated systems. It is also evaluated how the use of energy storage devices can contribute to frequency control, observing the advantages that such devices can bring to this system. The construction of the Decision Map can assist the analyses during the planning, programming and operation phases. In the simulations carried out, it was possible to verify that the use of ESD can promote a significant increase in the penetration of intermittent renewable plants, such as wind and solar photovoltaic, in isolated power systems.

[pt] Os sistemas elétricos de grande porte estiveram sempre fortemente associados à utilização de máquinas síncronas para a geração de energia e atendimento às cargas, tendo como outros benefícios, a possibilidade de prover o controle dinâmico do perfil de tensão da rede e a regulação da frequência elétrica. Em relação ao controle da frequência, as máquinas síncronas agregam resposta inercial, ou seja, convertem em energia elétrica parte da energia cinética armazenada em seus rotores, e vice-versa, sempre que caracterizado um desequilíbrio entre carga e geração. Este comportamento determina as taxas iniciais de variação da frequência elétrica (RoCoF – Rate of Change of Frequency), as quais podem ser definidas principalmente por dois fatores: a magnitude do desbalanço de potência ativa e a inércia global do sistema, sendo esse último dependente do número de geradores sincronizados e da inércia de cada gerador. O crescimento cada vez maior na matriz de energia elétrica de usinas eólicas e solares fotovoltaicas, que usualmente conectam-se à rede por meio de conversores eletrônicos e, portanto, não agregam resposta inercial ao sistema, trará impactos na regulação da frequência e nos valores de RoCoF. Nesse cenário, o principal objetivo deste trabalho é apresentar uma análise quantitativa da evolução das taxas de variação da frequência no SIN durante perdas de grandes blocos de geração. Os valores de RoCoF são analisados tanto do ponto de vista global, através da frequência no centro de inércia do sistema, quanto do ponto de vista regional, a partir de barras que representam as regiões do SIN. / [en] Large electrical systems have always been strongly associated with the use of synchronous machines for power generation and load service, with other benefits, possibility of providing dynamic control of the system voltage profile and frequency regulation. Regarding frequency control, synchronous machines aggregate inertial response, i.e., convert part of the kinetic energy stored in their rotors into electrical energy (and vice-versa), whenever there is an imbalance between load and generation. This behavior determines the initial Rate of Change of Frequency (RoCoF), determined mainly by two factors: a magnitude of the active power unbalance and the global inertia of the system, that is dependent on the number of synchronized generators and the inertia of each generator. The increase of wind and solar photovoltaic plants in electrical energy matrix, which are usually connected to the system through inverters and do not aggregate inertial response to the system, will impact on frequency regulation and RoCoF values. In this scenario, the main objective of this thesis is to present a quantitative analysis of the evolution of RoCoF in the Brazilian Electrical System during outages of large generation blocks. RoCoF values are analyzed from a global point of view, through the frequency at the center of inertia of the system, and from a local point of view, through buses that represent the Brazilian Electrical Subsystems.