This research investigates two principal characteristics that are of primary importance in Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) bridge deck applications: STIFFNESS and STRENGTH. The research was undertaken by investigating the stiffness and strength characteristics of the multi-cellular FRP bridge deck systems consisting of pultruded FRP shapes. A systematic analysis procedure was developed for the stiffness analysis of multi-cellular FRP deck systems. This procedure uses the Method of Elastic Equivalence to model the cellular deck as an equivalent orthotropic plate. The procedure provides a practical method to predict the equivalent orthotropic plate properties of cellular FRP decks. Analytical solutions for the bending analysis of single span decks were developed using classical laminated plate theory. The analysis procedures can be extended to analyze continuous FRP decks. It can also be further developed using higher order plate theories. Several failure modes of the cellular FRP deck systems were recorded and analyzed through laboratory and field tests and Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Two schemes of loading patches were used in the laboratory test: a steel patch made according to the ASSHTO's bridge testing specifications; and a tire patch made from a real truck tire reinforced with silicon rubber. The tire patch was specially designed to simulate service loading conditions by modifying real contact loading from a tire. Our research shows that the effects of the stiffness and contact conditions of loading patches are significant in the stiffness and strength testing of FRP decks. Due to the localization of load, a simulated tire patch yields larger deflection than the steel patch under the same loading level. The tire patch produces significantly different failure compared to the steel patch: a local bending mode with less damage for the tire patch; and a local punching-shear mode for the steel patch. A deck failure function method is proposed for predicting the failure of FRP decks. Using developed laminated composite theories and FEA techniques, a strength analysis procedure containing ply-level information was proposed and detailed for FRP deck systems. The behavior of the deck's unsupported (free) edges was also investigated using ply-level FEA. / Ph. D.

Typically, foundation piles are made of materials such as steel, concrete, and timber. Problems associated with use of these traditional pile materials in harsh marine environments include steel corrosion, concrete deterioration, and marine borer attack on timber piles. It has been estimated that the U.S. spends over $1 billion annually in repair and replacement of waterfront piling systems. Such high repair and replacement costs have led several North American highway agencies and researchers to investigate the feasibility of using composite piles for load bearing applications, such as bridge substructures. As used here, the term "composite piles" refers to alternative pile types composed of fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs), recycled plastics, or hybrid materials. Composite piles may exhibit longer service lives and improved durability in harsh marine environments, thereby presenting the potential for substantially reduced total costs. Composite piles have been available in the North American market since the late 1980's, but have not yet gained wide acceptance in civil engineering practice. Potential disadvantages of composite piles are high initial cost and questions about engineering performance. At present, the initial cost of composite piles is generally greater than the initial cost of traditional piles. Performance questions relate to driving efficiency, axial stiffness, bending stiffness, durability, and surface friction. These questions exist because there is not a long-term track record of composite pile use and there is a scarcity of well-documented field tests on composite piles. This research project was undertaken to investigate the engineering performance of composite piles as load-bearing foundation elements, specifically in bridge support applications. The objectives of this research are to: (1) evaluate the soil-pile interface behavior of five composite piles and two conventional piles, (2) evaluate the long-term durability of concrete-filled FRP composite piles, (3) evaluate the driveability and the axial and lateral load behavior of concrete-filled FRP composite piles, steel-reinforced recycled plastic composite piles, and prestressed concrete piles through field tests and analyses, and (4) design and implement a long-term monitoring program for composite and conventional prestressed concrete piles supporting a bridge at the Route 351 crossing of the Hampton River in Virginia. A summary of the main findings corresponding to each of these objectives is provided below. A laboratory program of interface testing was performed using two types of sands and seven pile surfaces (five composite piles and two conventional piles). The interface behavior of the different pile surfaces was studied within a geotribology framework that investigated the influence of surface topography, interface hardness, and particle size and shape. In general, the interface friction angles, both peak and residual, were found to increase with increasing relative asperity height and decreasing relative asperity spacing. The interface shear tests for the three pile types tested at the Route 351 bridge showed that, for medium dense, subrounded to rounded sand, with a mean particle size of 0.5 mm, the residual interface friction angles are 27.3, 24.9, and 27.7 degrees for the FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile, respectively. Interface shear tests on these same piles using a medium dense, subangular to angular sand, with a mean particle size of 0.18 mm, resulted in residual interface friction angles of 29.3, 28.8, and 28.0 degrees for the FRP composite pile, the recycled plastic pile, and the prestressed concrete pile, respectively. A laboratory durability study was completed for the FRP shells of concrete-filled FRP composite piles. Moisture absorption at room temperature caused strength and stiffness degradations of up to 25% in the FRP tubes. Exposure to freeze-thaw cycles was found to have little effect on the longitudinal tensile properties of saturated FRP tubes. Analyses were performed to investigate the impact of degradation of the FRP mechanical properties on the long-term structural capacity of concrete-filled FRP composite piles in compression and bending. The impact was found to be small for the axial pile capacity due to the fact that the majority of the capacity contribution is from the concrete infill. The impact of FRP degradation was found to be more significant for the flexural capacity because the FRP shell provides most of the capacity contribution on the tension side of the pile. Full-scale field performance data was obtained for two composite pile types (concretefilled FRP composite piling and steel-reinforced recycled plastic piling), as well as for conventional prestressed concrete piles, by means of load test programs performed at two bridge construction sites: the Route 351 bridge and the Route 40 bridge crossing the Nottoway River in Virginia. The field testing at the two bridges showed no major differences in driving behavior between the composite piles and conventional prestressed concrete piles. Pile axial capacities of the composite piles tested at the Route 351 bridge were between 70 to 75% of the axial capacity of the prestressed concrete test pile. The FRP and prestressed concrete piles exhibited similar axial and lateral stiffness, while the steel-reinforced plastic pile was not as stiff. Conventional geotechnical analysis procedures were used to predict axial pile capacity, axial load-settlement behavior, and lateral load behavior of the piles tested at the Route 351 bridge. The conventional analysis procedures were found to provide reasonable predictions for the composite piles, or at least to levels of accuracy similar to analyses for the prestressed concrete pile. However, additional case histories are recommended to corroborate and extend this conclusion to other composite pile types and to different soil conditions. A long-term monitoring program for composite and conventional prestressed concrete piles supporting the Route 351 bridge was designed and implemented. The bridge is still under construction at the time of this report, therefore no conclusions have been drawn regarding the long-term performance of concrete-filled FRP composite piles. The longterm monitoring will be done by the Virginia Department of Transportation. In addition to the above findings, initial cost data for the composite piles and prestressed concrete piles used in this research were compiled. This data may be useful to assess the economic competitiveness of composite piles. The initial unit cost of the installed composite piles at the Route 40 bridge were about 77 % higher than the initial unit cost for the prestressed concrete piles. The initial unit costs for the composite piles installed at the Route 351 bridge were higher than the initial unit cost of the prestressed concrete piles by about 289% and 337% for the plastic and FRP piles, respectively. The cost effectiveness of composite piles is expected to improve with economies of scale as production volumes increase, and by considering the life-cycle costs of low-maintenance composite piles. / Ph. D.

Today¿s engineers spend an increasing proportion of their time on the maintenance and retrofitting of existing structures. Many of these structures were designed for a purpose totally different from that for which they are now employed. The use of buildings has changed over the last few decades especially during the commercial boom in the 1990s and bridge structures are taking on more and more loads as traffic on the roads continues to rise dramatically.

Deterioration of reinforced concrete bridge decks has gained widespread public attention and concern in recent years. Much of the damage can be attributed to corrosion of steel reinforcing bars. Numerous solutions have been suggested, one of which is the replacement of steel with a non-corroding reinforcement, such as fiberglass-reinforced plastic materials. Much of the current research focuses on the applicability of FRP as the main tensile reinforcement in the slab. The nature of FRP presents many obstacles to its use in this capacity. This investigation aims to capitalize on the strengths of both steel and FRP by combining them. Traditional steel rebar should be used where it will provide strength and ductility to the deck --in the bottom layer of reinforcement. The FRP is placed where it will provide strength and non-corroding reinforcement where it is needed: the top layer. Recent research has shown that minimal negative moment is created over supports in bridge decks, suggesting that the use of the non-ductile FRP as the top reinforcement would not be detrimental. A review of prior and current research in this area was conducted. Based on this information, four different FRP reinforcing materials were obtained. Simple-beam test specimens were designed and built. The procedure is described, and experimental results are presented and analyzed. Conclusions are drawn and recommendations for future work are outlined. This investigation provides first-hand data on the behavior ofFRP reinforced concrete and will serve as the basis for future work. / Master of Science

Recent interest in utilizing hydrogen fuel cell technology for automotive applications has lead to concerns regarding the durability of fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials. Automotive fuel cell power train systems must prove themselves as a reliable alternative to the combustion engines and automatic transmissions. The use of polymer composites in fuel cells to serve as manifolds is promising because of their high strength to weight ratio, and they do not corrode like metals manifolds. Composite materials designed for use in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cells are exposed to very high humidity environment and operated at elevated temperatures (~85°C). The susceptibility of fiber reinforced polymers to reduction in modulus, strength, and life in chemical environments has been well documented in the literature, especially at elevated temperatures. A chopped carbon fiber epoxy composite (Material A) and a chopped glass fiber epoxy composite (Material B) were exposed at 85°C to air, water, and a 50/50 water/antifreeze mixture, and periodically examined for tensile, compression, and flexural strengths at various temperatures. Following 2000 hours (83 days) of exposure, Materials A & B did not reach full saturation. Fatigue tests were conducted at various load levels and temperatures to determine their effect on cycles to failure, and carpet plots were generated. Blister formation in aged composites led to reductions in material properties as great as 25% to 75%. A mechanistic explanation was developed for the formation of blisters in the epoxy composite. Recommendations for material improvement and feasibility of material use for fuel cell manifolds and pressure plates were made. / Master of Science

Highway bridges in the United States are frequently damaged by overheight vehicle collisions. The increasing number of prestressed concrete bridges indicates that the probability of such bridges being impacted by overheight vehicles has increased. This thesis, sponsored by the Virginia Center for Transportation Innovation and Research (VCTIR), investigated three repair techniques for impact damaged prestressed bridge girders: strand splices, fiber reinforced polymer (FRP) overlays, and fabric reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) overlays. The flexural strength of four AASHTO Type III girders, three of which were intentionally damaged and repaired, was evaluated. Six experimental tests were performed on these girders: one undamaged girder test and five repair method tests. Nonlinear beam models and three-dimensional finite element (FE) models were created to predict the behavior of the beams under flexural testing, and subsequently validated and calibrated to experimental test data. The very good accuracy of the beam models indicated that they can be used alone for the performance assessment of damaged and repaired girders. Of course, the analyst must always be aware of the fact that a beam model cannot explicitly account for potentially crucial effects such as diagonal cracking. A direct comparison between repair methods was made by creating analytical models of a prototype girder setup. FRP overlays were seen to restore the most strength, while strand splices were seen to restore the most ductility. From observation, combining repair methods resulted in an additive effect on strength, but the deformation at onset of failure will be governed by the less ductile method. / Master of Science

This study is part of a VDOT sponsored project focusing on repair techniques for impact damaged prestressed bridge girders. The investigation included evaluation of the repair installation and flexural strength of four AASHTO Type III girders that were intentionally damaged and repaired. In addition, nonlinear finite element modeling was used to aid in the development of design protocols for each repair method. This report discusses two of the three repair techniques. Three Master of Science students report on the project results: Justin Liesen, Mark Jones, and Michael Gangi. Liesen and Jones (2015) had responsibility for the installation and testing of the repaired girders and Gangi (2015) performed the finite element modeling of the girders. Three repair methods were identified for experimental investigation: strand splice, bonded FRP, and FRCM. During this investigation the repair methods were evaluated by conducting six flexural tests on four AASHTO Type III girders. Flexural tests were conducted instead of shear tests because typical impact damage from overheight vehicles occurs around the mid-span and flexural strength dominated region of bridge girders. The cracking and failure moments for each test were evaluated and compared to predictions of the girder's behavior using AASHTO calculations, a moment-curvature diagram, and non-linear finite element modeling. / Master of Science

Approximately fifty percent of the bridges in the United States are considered deficient. The deterioration of the concrete components is a leading cause of the problem. The deterioration of concrete bridge decks is due primarily to corrosion of the reinforcing steel in the concrete. A promising solution to the problem is the use of fiber reinforced plastics (FRP) as a replacement for reinforcing steel. The use of FRP as reinforcement has the following advantages of lightweight, high tensile strength, corrosion resistance, flexibility, and electromagnetic resistance. This paper looks at the use of FRP as reinforcement in concrete beams and compares the information from deflection measurements of different configurations. Also, a material cost comparison is made to determine the cost of using the FRP reinforcement over standard steel reinforcement. Concrete bridge deck systems are designed using steel and fiber-reinforced plastics and allowable stress and load resistance factor methods. Recommendations for further study and uses of FRP are made. / Master of Science

Two 7" deep FRP deck panels were manufactured and tested in a controlled service environment. The deck panels were 15' by 5' in plan, and were composed of ten 15' long, 6" by 6" by 3/8" standard pultruded FRP tubes. The tubes were sandwiched between two 3/8" thick standard pultruded FRP plates. The material constituents of the FRP were E-glass fibers in a polyester matrix. When subjected to two strength tests, the first deck panel exhibited a safety factor with respect to legal truck loads of greater than 10. The second deck was subjected to AASHTO design loads, and under a simulated HS-25 axle plus impact the deck exhibited a maximum deflection of L/470. Upon completion of the laboratory testing, the second deck was placed in the field for further study. The maximum strain recorded during field testing was approximately 600 microstrain, which is less than 15% of the ultimate tensile strain of the FRP in its weakest direction. After being subjected to approximately 4 million load cycles (assuming 100,000 5-axle truck crossings per month) over a period of 8 months, the deck exhibited no loss in stiffness. In two post-service strength tests, the second deck exhibited a safety factor with respect to legal truck loads of greater than 8 and greater than 13. / Master of Science

This thesis presents research completed on the experimental performance of two 6 3/4 in thick bridge deck panels fabricated by the Stongwell Corporation of Bristol, Virginia. The panels are made of off-the-shelf, pultruded glass fiber-reinforced polymer elements, bonded and mechanically fastened together. The testing involved laboratory stiffness tests performed on one deck panel which afterwards, was placed in a field test site at the I-81 Troutville Weigh Station facility. The daily truck traffic over the deck panel at this site is approximately 5400 vehicles. The second deck panel was constructed as a prototype to test benefits of steel thru-rod mechanical connectors. Further, a rubber tire loading patch was developed for the laboratory stiffness and strength tests performed on this second specimen to investigate modes of failure. Both decks made use of a hook bolt type connection to steel support beams in order to reduce damage seen in previous methods of connection. / Master of Science