M. Tech. (Electrical, Applied Electronics and Electronic Communication, Faculty of Engineering and Technology) Vaal University of Technology| / The demand for efficient and environmentally friendly power sources has become a major topic around the world. This research explores the capability of the zinc-air fuel cell to replace conventional power sources for various applications, more specifically telecommunication systems. The research consisted of a theoretical study of the zinc-air fuel cell and its components, as well as their performance characteristics. A zinc-air fuel ce.ll and test rig were built, and the system was tested under various conditions. It was found that the zinc-air fuel cell has an advantage over other fuel cells in that it does not require any expensive materials or noble metals, reducing the overall cost of such a system. The fuel cell showed the potential to power various applications, but problems persisted in the fueling process as well as constant leaking of the aqueous electrolyte.

The modification of anode materials is important to enhance the power generation of MFCs (microbial fuel cells). A novel and cost-effective modified anode that is fabricated by dispersing manganese dioxide (MnO2) and HNTs (Halloysite nanotubes) on carbon cloth to improve the MFCs' power production was reported. The results show that the MnO2/HNT anodes acquire more bacteria and provide greater kinetic activity and power density compared to the unmodified anode. Among all modified anodes, 75 wt% MnO2/HNT exhibits the highest electrochemical performance. The maximum power density is 767.3 mWm(-2), which 21.6 higher than the unmodified anode (631 mW/m(2)). Besides, CE (Coulombic efficiency) was improved 20.7, indicating that more chemical energy transformed to electricity. XRD (X-Ray powder diffraction) and FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) are used to characterize the structure and functional groups of the anode. CV (cyclic voltammetry) scans and SEM (scanning electron microscope) images demonstrate that the measured power density is associated with the attachment of bacteria, the microorganism morphology differed between the modified and the original anode. These findings demonstrate that MnO2/FINT nanocomposites can alter the characteristics of carbon cloth anodes to effectively modify the anode for practical MFC applications. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Nos sociétés sont de plus en plus préoccupées par l’impact très nocif des ressources énergétiques polluantes, essentiellement, le pétrole, le charbon et le gaz. Ainsi, l’intérêt dans l’utilisation des énergies renouvelables et propres est en constant augmentation et la conception de nouveaux systèmes énergétiques est devenue un challenge scientifique et technologique. Pour concevoir de nouvelles solutions énergétiques compétitives et efficaces, les fabricants de composants (panneaux solaires, pile à combustible, convertisseurs, etc.) et les secteurs industriels concernés sont confrontés à des problématiques d’optimisation, de contrôle et de durabilité. Par ailleurs, les sources d’énergie renouvelable sont dépendantes de plusieurs facteurs incontrôlables (lieu géographique, météorologie, etc.). Pour parer à ces facteurs, et donc au caractère aléatoire de disponibilité énergétique, l’hybridation des sources et la gestion énergétique peut s’avérer être une approche pertinente pour la conception de solutions énergétiques efficaces. Cette thèse est une contribution au problème de l’hybridation et de la gestion d’énergie. Plus précisément, nous considérons un système hybride composé de panneaux solaires photovoltaïques et d’une pile à combustible. Ce système est supposé être doté de convertisseurs et d’un système de stockage (batterie et super-condensateurs). / Our societies are increasingly concerned about the very harmful impact of clean energy resources, mainly oil, coal and gas. Thus, interest in the use of renewable and clean energy is constantly increasing and the development of new energy systems has become a scientific and technological challenge. To develop new competitive and efficient energy solutions, manufacturers of components (solar panels, fuel cells, inverters, etc.) and industrial sectors are facing problems of optimization, control and durability. In addition, renewable energy sources depend on several uncontrollable factors (geographical location, weather, etc.). To address these factors, and thus the randomness of energy availability, sources hybridization and energy management can prove to be an appropriate approach for the design of efficient energy solutions. This thesis is a contribution to the problem of hybridization and energy management. More precisely, we consider a hybrid system composed of photovoltaic solar panels and a fuel cell. This system is supposed to be equipped with converters and storage system (battery and supercapacitors). The goal is to develop control strategies to extract the maximum power available from the considered sources and to optimize the overall energy system to meet the load requirements. To do this, our approach is based on the tracking of the maximum power point and the use of compensators.

Ce travail est une contribution à l’étude du rôle des plaques bipolaires sur le fonctionnement des piles à combustible à membrane, en particulier l’effet du design de ces plaques en tant que distributeur de gaz réactifs, et la recherche de matériaux métalliques pouvant remplacer les matériaux carbonés conventionnels. Les performances des piles à combustible sont entre autres limitées par certains problèmes liés à la thermohydraulique : l'assèchement des membranes et l'engorgement en eau des canaux de distribution des gaz. Ces performances sont limitées aussi par le type des membranes, et des plaques bipolaires utilisées. Ces travaux de thèse traitent essentiellement une comparaison entre des membranes ainsi que des plaques bipolaires. Nous avons également étudié les problèmes liés à l’humidité, en particulier l’'engorgement en eau dans les canaux d'une pile à combustible par des essais de visualisation : l’évacuation de l’eau liquide dépend très fortement de la gravure des plaquesDe plus, nous avons recherché des matériaux métalliques candidats à la réalisation de plaques bipolaires pour remplacer le graphite, encombrant et couteux. Deux matériaux ont été étudiés : l’acier inox 316L et l’alliage nickel-tungstène déposé sur une plaque de cuivre. L’inox 316 L, utilisé comme matériau pour les plaques bipolaires, montre une bonne résistance aux conditions agressives régnant au sein de la pile à combustible à membrane, comme l’ont montré des essais réalisés pendant près de 1000 heures / This work is a contribution to the study of the role of bipolar plates on the operation of fuel cell membrane, in particular the effect of the design of these plates as a distributor of reactive gases, and the search for metallic materials that can replace conventional carbon materials .The performance of fuel cells are limited by , among other problems related to thermal hydraulics : dewatering membranes and waterlogging distribution channels gas . This performance is also limited by the type of membrane and bipolar plates used . This thesis deal primarily a comparison between membranes and bipolar plates . We also investigated problems related to moisture , especially the '' water flooding in the channels of a fuel cell by visualization tests : the evacuation of liquid water is highly dependent on the etching platesIn addition, we have searched for metallic materials candidates embodiment to replace the bipolar plates of graphite, cumbersome and costly . Two materials have been studied : 316L stainless steel and the nickel - tungsten deposited on a copper plate . The 316 L stainless steel , used as material for bipolar plates , shows good resistance to aggressive conditions within the fuel cell membrane, as shown by tests carried out over nearly 1000 hours

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Fuel cells are long term solution for global energy needs. In current fuel cell technologies, Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are known for quick start-up and ease of operation compared to other types of fuel cells. Operating PEM fuel cells at high temperature show promising applications for stationary combined heat and power application (CHP). The high operating temperature up to 160°C allows waste heat to be recovered for co-generation or tri-generation purposes. The commercially available PEM fuel cells operating at 160⁰C can tolerate up to 3% CO without significant loss of performance, making HT-PEM fuel cell viable choice when reformate is used. In reality these advantages convert to very little balance-of-plant compared to Nafion® based fuel cells operating at 60°C. However, there are some problems that prevent high temperature fuel cells from large scale commercialization. The cathode is said to have sluggish reaction kinetics and high cell potentials and operating temperature during fuel cell start-up may cause severe degradation. The formation of liquid water during the shut-down can cause the phosphoric acid to leach from the cell during operation. Efforts are being made to reduce the cost and increase the durability of fuel cell components (such as catalyst and membrane) at high temperatures. Apart from degradation issues, the problems are related to cost and performance. The performance of the PEM fuel cells depends on a lot of factors such as fuel cell design and assembly, operating conditions and the flow field design used on the cathode and anode plates. The flow field geometry is one important factor influencing the performance of fuel cells. The flow fields have significant effect on pressure and flow distribution inside the fuel cell. A homogeneous distribution of the reactant gases over the active catalyst surface leads to improved electrochemical reactions and thus enhances the performance of the fuel cell. So, the design of flow fields is one of the important issues for performance improvement of PEM fuel cell in terms of power density and efficiency. There are different types of flow fields available for PEM fuel cells such as serpentine, pin, interdigitated and straight flow fields but the most obvious choice is multiple serpentine. The same can be used for high temperature PEM fuel cell (HT-PEMFC) application with ease because of absence of liquid water during the high temperature operation and no need for complex water management.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Proton exchange membrane fuel cells (PEMFC) converts chemical energy from the electrochemical reaction of oxygen and hydrogen into electrical while emitting heat, oxygen depleted air (ODA) and water as by-products. The by-products have useful functions in aircrafts, such as heat that can be used for ice prevention, deoxygenated air for fire retardation and drinkable water for use on board. Consequently, the PEMFC is also studied to optimize recovery of the useful products. Despite the progress made, durability and reliability remain key challenges to the fuel cell technology. One of the reasons for this is the limited understanding of PEMFC behaviour in the aeronautic environment. The aim of this thesis was to define a comprehensive non-intrusive diagnostic technique that provides real time diagnostics on the PEMFC State of Health (SoH). The framework of the study involved determining factors that have direct influence on fuel cell life in aeronautic environment through a literature survey, examining the effects of the factors by subjecting the PEMFC to simulated conditions, establishing measurable parameters reflective of the factors and defining the diagnostic tool based on literature review and this thesis finding.

This thesis uses dynamic electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (dEIS) to study how nickel undergoes electrooxidation. An electropolishing step is used to make a clean surface, and then the transformation of nickel to α-Ni(OH)2 is studied, including how a holding potential affects the double layer capacitance, surface structure and charge transfer resistance. Also, NiOOH is grown on the surface by sweeping to more positive potentials, and the activity of NiOOH toward glycerol electrooxidation is studied. It is shown that the free water content decreases on the surface (all or some portions of the surface, or possibly one or two monolayers close to the nickel surface) during the potential hold as determined by the decrease in measured capacitance. Oxidation of glycerol to glyceraldehyde is found to be the main reaction and the reaction mechanism is discussed. / Graduate / 2019-10-23

Nesse estudo foi sintetizado e caracterizado o óxido de grafeno (OG) a partir do método de Hummers modificado. O OG foi utilizado como suporte para nanopartículas de paládio para uso como eletrocatalisador em células a combustíveis abastecidas diretamente a etanol. O uso de carbono grafite como suporte de nanopartículas metálicas é deteriorado com mais rapidez, levando a diminuição do tempo de vida útil da célula a combustível. O objetivo principal foi a incorporação do paládio no óxido de grafeno via feixe de elétrons, e a comparação com o catalisador incorporado por via química, utilizando o borohidrato de sódio. Foram utilizadas técnicas de caracterização tais como: termogravimetria (TG), difração de raios-X (DRX), as espectroscopias de Raman e infravermelho com transformada de Fourier (FT-IR), microscopia de transmissão eletrônica (MET), Espectroscopia de fotoelétrons por raios- X (XPS) e estudos voltamétricos como a voltametria cíclica e cronoamperometria. Os resultados indicaram que para a dose de 288 kGy, houve a incorporação, porém, não foi suficiente para que houvesse a redução dos grupos oxigenados, estudos com o oxido de grafeno previamente reduzido via térmica e incorporado via feixe de elétrons foram comparados na mesma dose. / In this study, graphene oxide (GO) was synthesized by the modified Hummers method and characterized. GO was used as support for palladium nanoparticles as an electrocatalyst on direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC). One of the drawbacks using carbon graphite as a support for metal nanoparticles was because it deteriorates more quickly, leading to shortened fuel cell life. The main objective was the incorporation of Pd on the graphene oxide by the electron beam and was compared with the chemical incorporation, using sodium borohydride. Characterization techniques such as thermogravimetry (TG), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR), electron transmission microscopy (TEM), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and voltammetric studies such as cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry. The results indicated that at a dose of 288 kGy, there was an incorporation, however, it was not enough for there to be a decrease in the groups of oxygenates, studies with the graphene oxide downloaded through the thermal and through electron beams were compared in the same dose.

O objetivo desse trabalho foi investigar as relações entre a durabilidade e as diversas configurações dos componentes de uma célula a combustível do tipo PEM por meio de Testes de Durabilidade de Longa Duração. Foram comparados três tipos de geometria de fluxo, duas espessuras de membranas poliméricas e dois níveis de cargas de platina. Em diversos aspectos, a geometria de canais de fluxo do tipo serpentina se mostrou superior aos demais. Em relação às membranas, as do tipo Nafion 212 se mostraram bastante frágeis e suscetíveis ao crossover de H2, apesar de fornecerem maior potência elétrica que as membranas Nafion 115, as quais exibiram maior durabilidade. No que diz respeito à carga de platina nos eletrodos, verificou-se que os eletrodos preparados com 0,1 mg Pt cm-2 perderam, proporcionalmente, mais área eletroquimicamente ativa que aqueles preparados com 0,4 mg Pt cm-2, mas, ao mesmo tempo, apresentaram as menores taxas de perdas irreversíveis de desempenho. As análises por diversas técnicas eletroquímicas indicaram que os aumentos das resistências ôhmicas e de transporte de massas são os fatores que mais contribuem para as perdas irreversíveis de desempenho, enquanto que o aumento da resistência de transporte de cargas devido ao encharcamento dos eletrodos é o principal responsável pelas perdas reversíveis de desempenho. A proporção de ionômero na camada catalítica foi investigada e verificou-se que, apesar de facilitar para que ocorram perdas reversíveis de desempenho, a maior proporção de ionômero na camada catalítica contribuiu em mitigar a degradação do MEA. Por fim, observou-se que a qualidade do contato entre os eletrodos e a membrana tem grande contribuição na durabilidade das células a combustível do tipo PEM. / The aim of this work was to investigate the relations between durability and the several Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC) setups via long-term durability tests. Comparisons were made with three types of flow field designs, two polymeric membranes thicknesses and two platinum loadings. In many aspects, the serpentine flow field design has presented better results than the others. Regarding the membranes, Nafion 212 has shown to be very fragile and susceptible to H2 crossover, although it provides more electrical power than the Nafion 115 membrane which exhibited better durability. Concerning the platinum loading, the electrodes prepared with 0.1 mg Pt cm-2 have lost proportionally more electrochemical surface area than the ones prepared with 0.4 mg Pt cm-2 but at the same time, the electrodes with the lowest platinum load presented lower irreversible performance loss rate. The analyses made by several electrochemical techniques have indicated that the raise of the ohmic and mass transport resistances are the factors that most contribute to the irreversible performance loss, meanwhile the charge transport resistance due to the electrodes flooding is the main responsible for the reversible performance loss. The proportion of ionomer in the catalytic layer was studied and it was possible to infer that the highest ionomer proportion contributes to mitigate the MEA degradation, although it facilitates the reversible performance loss occurrence. Finally, it was observed that the contact quality of the electrodes and the membrane has remarkable influence on the PEMFCs durability.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo estudar as regiões dos canais catódicos de uma célula a combustível de membrana polimérica condutora de prótons PEM unitária, em que há acúmulo de água e os padrões de escoamento desta água nos canais, bem como as condições de operação em que isto ocorre. Esta água acumulada nos canais catódicos tem duas origens distintas, a saber: 1. água produzida na reação de redução do oxigênio no sítio catalítico do cátodo, 2. água de condensação formada a partir do vapor de água proveniente do umidificador de oxigênio. O arranjo experimental desenvolvido permitiu a perfeita visualização dos fenômenos; a saber: iniciando-se com gotículas que emergem da camada de difusão gasosa do cátodo, passando estas gotículas a se aglutinarem por um processo de coalescimento aumentando de tamanho até formarem um filme nas paredes dos canais. Em continuidade a este processo há um adensamento do filme com a formação de bolsões (slugs) de água líquida que ocupam a área de passagem do oxigênio nos canais. O bloqueio da passagem do oxigênio pelo bolsão de água líquida no canal impede que o oxigênio alcance os sítios catalíticos da camada catalítica do cátodo onde ocorre a reação de redução do oxigênio, cessando desta forma a reação, constituindo-se num dos mais sérios problemas das células a combustível do tipo membrana polimérica, uma vez que afeta diretamente o desempenho da célula. A formação contínua desses slugs e seu agrupamento é um fenômeno denominado de encharcamento (flooding) da célula. Para se observar estes fenômenos que ocorrem no interior dos canais catódicos utilizou-se de um protótipo de célula a combustível transparente unitária de 5 cm² de área geométrica cuja placa de fechamento foi feita de policarbonato transparente. A célula foi alimentada com o combustível hidrogênio pelo lado do ânodo e com o oxidante oxigênio pelo lado do cátodo. Nos experimentos utilizou-se um espectro de temperaturas variando de 25ºC a 55ºC. A temperatura máxima da célula ficou limitada a 55ºC uma vez que o policarbonato começa a se degradar com água a 60ºC por isso não se utilizando temperaturas na faixa de 70ºC a 90ºC que são as temperaturas de operação das células PEM comerciais. As vazões de oxigênio e de hidrogênio usadas foram de 60 mL min-1 e de 100 mL min-1 respectivamente. A faixa de potencial variou de 0,1 V a 1,0 V. Foram utilizados cargas de platina de 0,4 mg cm-2 no eletrodo anódico e no eletrodo catódico. Os resultados experimentais foram comparados aos resultados numéricos na forma de curvas de polarização que medem o desempenho da célula apresentando uma boa concordância entre si, deste modo validando o modelo numérico usado. Para fazer a modelagem matemática da placa com os canais catódicos usou-se o software comercial COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3a, no qual se implementou uma função chave que indica o equilíbrio líquido/vapor, obtendo-se como resultados numéricos a distribuição de saturação em um espectro de temperaturas de 25ºC a 55ºC e de potenciais de 0,1 V a 1,0 V. / This work aims to study the regions of the cathode channels of a proton exchange membrane fuel cell PEMFC, in which there is accumulation of water, this water flow patterns in the channels, as well as the operating conditions at which this occurs. This accumulated water in the cathode channels has two distinct origins, namely: 1. Water formed in the reaction of the oxygen reduction at the cathode catalytic site. 2. Water from the condensation formed due to the water vapor coming from the oxygen humidifier. The developed experimental setup allowed the perfect visualization of the phenomena, as it follows: starting with droplets that emerge from the cathode gas diffusion layer, then these droplets undergo a process of coalescence, increasing in size to form a film on the walls of the channels. Continuing this process, there is a thickening of the film with the formation of liquid water slugs, occupying the area of the oxygen passage in the channels. Blocking the passage of the oxygen through the slug of liquid water in the channel prevents oxygen from reaching the catalytic sites of the cathode catalyst layer, where the oxygen reduction reaction occurs. Thereby, the reaction is stopped, constituting one of the most serious problems of the proton exchange membrane fuel cell, since the cell performance is directly affected. Continuous formation of these slugs and their grouping is a phenomenon called flooding of the cell. The study of these phenomena inside the cathodic channel of a transparent prototype PEM fuel cell (the end of the cathode plate constructed of polycarbonate, which is a transparent material), with 5 cm ² geometric area, was used. The cell was fed with hydrogen fuel at the anode and with oxidant oxygen at the cathode. In the experiments, a range of temperatures varying from 25ºC to 55ºC was used. The maximum temperature of the cell was limited to 55ºC, once the polycarbonate starts to degrade with water at 60ºC, therefore not using temperatures between 70ºC and 90ºC, which are the operating temperatures of commercial PEM fuel cells . The flow rates of oxygen and hydrogen commonly used were, respectively, 60 mL min-1 and 100 mL min-1. The potential range varied from 0.1 V to 1.0 V. Anodic and cathodic electrodes, with platinum loading of 0.4 mg cm-2, were used. The experimental results were compared with the numerical results in the form of polarization curves that measure cell performance, having good agreement with each other and, thereby, validating the numerical model used. The mathematical modeling of the cathode side, a COMSOL Multiphysics 4.3a commercial software was used, in which a switch function was implemented, which indicates the liquid / vapor equilibrium. Numerical results, as the distribution of saturation and the distribution of the water mole fraction, in a range of temperatures from 25ºC to 55ºC and potential of 0.1 V to 1.0 V, were obtained.