The study was a descriptive quantitative survey which endeavoured to identify challenges experienced by IMCI trained registered nurses in implementing the guidelines and procedures of the strategy when tending children under 5 years in Gaborone health district. The study also solicited for recommendations on how to address the identified challenges. The research population comprised of all the IMCI-1 trained registered nurses and systematic sampling was employed to randomly select study participants. Data were collected using a questionnaire and was analysed using Excel Advanced software package. Study findings identified challenges related to political support, cost of IMCI training, training coverage, health systems and features of the IMCI strategy. Recommendations for improving use of the strategy included garnering for more political support, adopting short duration training courses, scaling up both pre-service and in-service training as well as addressing the challenges related to health systems and the unique features of the strategy / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

The study aimed at determining the contribution of cowpeas to dietary diversity and food access, among women living in a peri-urban area of Gaborone called Gabane village in Botswana. Consuming a variety of food groups ensures adequate intake of nutrients for health. Diet diversity measures diet quality, food access and an indication of nutritious diets. Cowpeas are a nutritious vegetable which can contribute to diet diversity, diet quality and food access of many poor rural households who cannot afford to purchase a wide variety of nutritious food (ARC, 2006). Data was collected through administering a Cowpea consumption survey questionnaire which indicated that most of the households consume cowpeas which are essential to improve household food access, diet diversity and diet quality. A socio-demographic questionnaire was also used and it indicated an average number of household members of 6 people. The respondents were mainly the elderly people of 56 years and above with primary school education as the most achieved level of education. A Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) questionnaire was contextualised for local foods consumed in Botswana. Focus group discussions were conducted to collect more data from women regarding their attitude, opinions and perceptions of consuming a variety of foods, cultivating and consuming cowpeas to ensure good health. The focus group results indicated that cowpeas were consumed by most families and 100% of adults and children consume cowpeas as leaves and seeds. Cereals were predominantly consumed by 95% of households, vitamin A rich fruits and vegetables by 52.5%, meat, poultry and fish by 42.5%. Vitamin A rich foods such as vegetables, fruits and organ meat were poorly consumed except green leafy vegetables which included cowpea leaves consumed by 52.5%. Meat, poultry and fish were consumed by 42.5%. Legumes, nuts, seeds and organ meat were also poorly consumed. vii Cowpeas grow well in Botswana, are Batswana’s cultural food, can improve nutritional intake and livelihoods through sold surplus profit. A diet diversity score of 2.9, well below the advised cut-off point of 4 was documented, indicating poor household dietary diversity and poor diet quality and food access. / Agricultural, Animal Health and Human Ecology / Thesis (M.A. (Human ecology) )

The study was a descriptive quantitative survey which endeavoured to identify challenges experienced by IMCI trained registered nurses in implementing the guidelines and procedures of the strategy when tending children under 5 years in Gaborone health district. The study also solicited for recommendations on how to address the identified challenges. The research population comprised of all the IMCI-1 trained registered nurses and systematic sampling was employed to randomly select study participants. Data were collected using a questionnaire and was analysed using Excel Advanced software package. Study findings identified challenges related to political support, cost of IMCI training, training coverage, health systems and features of the IMCI strategy. Recommendations for improving use of the strategy included garnering for more political support, adopting short duration training courses, scaling up both pre-service and in-service training as well as addressing the challenges related to health systems and the unique features of the strategy / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

The management of clinical waste is of great importance due to its infectious and hazardous nature that can cause risks on environment and public health. The study was conducted to evaluate clinical waste management practices and to determine the amount of waste generated in five purposively selected healthcare facilities in Gaborone City Council. The surveyed healthcare facilities were of different size, specialization and category and included a referral hospital, two clinics and two health posts. To examine clinical waste management practices the study employed a range of methods including questionnaire survey which targeted 105 stratified randomly selected healthcare workers and ancillary staff, formal interviews with facility managers, field observations and literature reviews. Compliance with the Botswana Clinical Waste Management Code of Practice, 1996 and Waste Management Act, 1998 and other related documents were used as standards to assess clinical waste management practices. The waste management practices were analysed for a week in each healthcare facility to capture the daily management practices. The generated clinical waste was weighed to compute the generation rates and was followed through the various management practices to the final disposal. Findings of the study revealed that clinical waste generation rates were: 0.75kg/patient/day for Princess Marina Hospital and 0.1 - 0.3kg/patient/day for clinics and health posts. Numerous aspects of clinical waste management were found to comply with the expected rules and standards at Princess Marina Hospital, but the clinics and health posts had less appropriate practices. Clinical waste generated at Princess Marina Hospital is quantified in reliable records and dedicated Infectious Control Officers are responsible for monitoring the management of clinical waste. The study revealed that clinics and health posts do not quantify clinical waste and there are no officers responsible for monitoring clinical waste and there are no documents for monitoring the management of clinical waste. The main treatment method of clinical waste for the surveyed healthcare facilities is incineration and it is being done properly. The study established that at least 80% of healthcare workers and ancillary staff have been vaccinated against hepatitis B and have received training in clinical waste management. Recommendations are given with the aim of improving clinical waste management practices in Gaborone City Council healthcare facilities. / Environmental Management / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. Aflatoxins and fumonisins are among the most toxic mycotoxins. They are a significant risk factor for a cocktail of chronic health conditions including cancer of the liver, oesophagus and kidney, teratogenicity, neural tube defects, interference with lipid metabolism, a weakened immune system and a negative impact on micronutrient absorption in both man and animals. This study compared natural contamination of peanuts, peanut butter and sorghum from Gaborone, Botswana and Bulawayo, Zimbabwe with aflatoxins and fumonisins. In total 34 peanut samples, 34 sorghum samples and 11 peanut butter samples were collected randomly from retail shops and informal markets in the two cities. Fungal contamination was determined using standard mycology methods. Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination was determined using HPLC-FLD. A. flavus/parasiticus species were detected in 66% and 100% of randomly analysed peanut samples from Bulawayo and Gaborone respectively and 27% (3/11) of peanut butter samples from Bulawayo. 67% of randomly analysed sorghum samples from Bulawayo showed A. flavus/parasiticus and Fusarium species contamination while none of the randomly analysed sorghum samples from Gaborone showed any fungal contamination. Furthermore aflatoxins were not detected in any of the sorghum samples; however 61% (11/18) of the Bulawayo sorghum samples showed fumonisin contamination (Range: 8 – 187 ng/g). Three of the peanut samples from Bulawayo were contaminated with aflatoxins (range: 6.6 – 622 ng/g) and no aflatoxins were detected in Gaborone peanuts. All 11 peanut butter samples from Bulawayo were contaminated with aflatoxins (Mean: 73.5 ng/g, Range: 6.8-250 ng/g) and AFB1 was the most prevalent. These preliminary results indicate that peanut butter and peanuts from Bulawayo are contaminated with high levels of aflatoxins. Stricter policing of regulations should be implemented to ensure compliance by manufacturers and public health interventions implemented in vulnerable communities. / Life & Consumer Sciences / M. Sc. (Life Sciences)

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. Aflatoxins and fumonisins are among the most toxic mycotoxins. They are a significant risk factor for a cocktail of chronic health conditions including cancer of the liver, oesophagus and kidney, teratogenicity, neural tube defects, interference with lipid metabolism, a weakened immune system and a negative impact on micronutrient absorption in both man and animals. This study compared natural contamination of peanuts, peanut butter and sorghum from Gaborone, Botswana and Bulawayo, Zimbabwe with aflatoxins and fumonisins. In total 34 peanut samples, 34 sorghum samples and 11 peanut butter samples were collected randomly from retail shops and informal markets in the two cities. Fungal contamination was determined using standard mycology methods. Aflatoxin and fumonisin contamination was determined using HPLC-FLD. A. flavus/parasiticus species were detected in 66% and 100% of randomly analysed peanut samples from Bulawayo and Gaborone respectively and 27% (3/11) of peanut butter samples from Bulawayo. 67% of randomly analysed sorghum samples from Bulawayo showed A. flavus/parasiticus and Fusarium species contamination while none of the randomly analysed sorghum samples from Gaborone showed any fungal contamination. Furthermore aflatoxins were not detected in any of the sorghum samples; however 61% (11/18) of the Bulawayo sorghum samples showed fumonisin contamination (Range: 8 – 187 ng/g). Three of the peanut samples from Bulawayo were contaminated with aflatoxins (range: 6.6 – 622 ng/g) and no aflatoxins were detected in Gaborone peanuts. All 11 peanut butter samples from Bulawayo were contaminated with aflatoxins (Mean: 73.5 ng/g, Range: 6.8-250 ng/g) and AFB1 was the most prevalent. These preliminary results indicate that peanut butter and peanuts from Bulawayo are contaminated with high levels of aflatoxins. Stricter policing of regulations should be implemented to ensure compliance by manufacturers and public health interventions implemented in vulnerable communities. / Life and Consumer Sciences / M. Sc. (Life Sciences)

The management of clinical waste is of great importance due to its infectious and hazardous nature that can cause risks on environment and public health. The study was conducted to evaluate clinical waste management practices and to determine the amount of waste generated in five purposively selected healthcare facilities in Gaborone City Council. The surveyed healthcare facilities were of different size, specialization and category and included a referral hospital, two clinics and two health posts. To examine clinical waste management practices the study employed a range of methods including questionnaire survey which targeted 105 stratified randomly selected healthcare workers and ancillary staff, formal interviews with facility managers, field observations and literature reviews. Compliance with the Botswana Clinical Waste Management Code of Practice, 1996 and Waste Management Act, 1998 and other related documents were used as standards to assess clinical waste management practices. The waste management practices were analysed for a week in each healthcare facility to capture the daily management practices. The generated clinical waste was weighed to compute the generation rates and was followed through the various management practices to the final disposal. Findings of the study revealed that clinical waste generation rates were: 0.75kg/patient/day for Princess Marina Hospital and 0.1 - 0.3kg/patient/day for clinics and health posts. Numerous aspects of clinical waste management were found to comply with the expected rules and standards at Princess Marina Hospital, but the clinics and health posts had less appropriate practices. Clinical waste generated at Princess Marina Hospital is quantified in reliable records and dedicated Infectious Control Officers are responsible for monitoring the management of clinical waste. The study revealed that clinics and health posts do not quantify clinical waste and there are no officers responsible for monitoring clinical waste and there are no documents for monitoring the management of clinical waste. The main treatment method of clinical waste for the surveyed healthcare facilities is incineration and it is being done properly. The study established that at least 80% of healthcare workers and ancillary staff have been vaccinated against hepatitis B and have received training in clinical waste management. Recommendations are given with the aim of improving clinical waste management practices in Gaborone City Council healthcare facilities. / Environmental Management / M. Sc. (Environmental Management)

Thesis (MPH.) -- University of Limpopo, 2022 / Background: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome still remains the leading cause of death globally. Understanding students’ views about the risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection by exploring and describing their perceptions may help to design effective Human Immunodeficiency Virus prevention interventions. The tertiary institution environment offers a great opportunity for Human Immunodeficiency Virus high risk behaviours, including alcohol and drug abuse, unsafe sex, multiple sexual relationships, intergenerational and transactional sex. Despite the decline in the overall incidence of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection, still a significant proportion of the youth population are at risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. Objectives: The study was to explore and describe perception of risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus among students at the Institute of Development Management, Gaborone, Botswana Campus. Methodology: A qualitative, exploratory, descriptive study using semi-structured interviews with purposively selected second year Public Health students was conducted. Interviews were conducted using an interview guide. It was audio recorded until data saturation was reached, where eight students participated in the study. Voice recordings were transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically. Results: The findings reveals that some participants perceive themselves to be at risk of contracting Human Immunodeficiency Virus, while others perceive themselves as being not at risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection. Several risk factors associated with Human Immunodeficiency Virus infection, for example, alcohol and drug abuse, multiple concurrent sexual relationships, intergenerational and transactional sex are revealed as challenges. They also expressed their fears in relation to Human Immunodefiency Virus testing, pregnancy and disclosure of Human Immunodeficiency Virus positive status due to the stigma and discrimination. Conclusion: High risk behaviours leading to Human Immunodeficiency Virus and Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome prevalence are still common among young people, hence the need for government and all stakeholders to specifically address them by coming up with specific behavioural intervention programmes.

BACKGROUND: Harmful drinking among students in tertiary institutions has become a major public health issue worldwide. Botswana is among the countries that are experiencing this problem. Abuse of alcohol amongst students is linked to road crushes, intentional and unintentional injuries, raping and an array of communicable diseases notably HIV/AIDS. Drinking among students could be a function of personal and environmental factors. PURPOSE: The purpose of the study was to identify factors that are consistent with abuse of alcohol among students in tertiary institutions in Gaborone. METHOD: This is a quantitative, non-experimental, cross sectional descriptive study. Data were collected from a sample of students in tertiary institutions. SPSS was used for the analysis of data. RESULTS: The study has revealed hazardous drinking among students. The use of alcohol was predicted on demographic, psychological and environmental factors of respondents. Influence from a close friend, year level of study and area of residence were correlates of drinking among students. Institution based educational interventions that focus on building leadership skills of students are critical in addressing issues of alcohol in tertiary institutions. Statutory measures are necessary to limit students’ access to alcohol. CONCLUSION: The study has identified factors that are related to abuse of alcohol among students. The findings could be used to strengthen evidence based planning and implementation of interventions for tackling issues of alcohol in tertiary institutions. There is a need for future research on this area using qualitative approach. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

The aim of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of School Intervention Teams (SITs) in assisting learners with Special Educational Needs (SEN) at community junior secondary schools (CJSS) in Botswana. This case study was guided by the cultural-historical theory on cognitive development by Lev Vygotsky and Bill Hettler’s theory on wellness dimensions. The study used mixed research approach which combined qualitative and quantitative method. The data collection instruments used included questionnaires which were completed by members of SITs, semi-structured oral interview which was specifically planned for SIT coordinators and lastly, document analysis. This research task was carried out under the permission of University of South Africa (UNISA) Ethics Clearance Committee and Ministry of Education and Skills Development (Botswana). Letters of consent were obtained from the school heads, SIT coordinators and members of SIT in the sampled community junior secondary schools (CJSS). The findings of this study showed that the effectiveness of SIT is dependent upon availability of positive attitude and support towards Inclusive Education by school management team, teachers, parents, external stakeholders (Botswana examinations Centre, Central Resource Centre, Principal Education Officers for Special education). Effectiveness of SIT is also enhanced by availability of resources such as teaching learning aids, office and classroom for remediation of the identified learners. Therefore, there is still a great gap between special education recommendation and their implementation in CJSS in Botswana and this hinders the effectiveness of SITs. / Inclusive Education / M. Ed. (Inclusive Education)