This thesis investigates the gas content and star formation in a sample of 12 luminous and 4 ultra-luminous infrared galaxies (U/LIRGs). The primary aim is to analyze the relationship between those two properties to illuminate the physics driving star formation in these extreme environments. This is done through archival band 3 (84-116 GHz) Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) data. The tracers applied in this work are free-free radio continuum emission at 110 GHz for star formation rate surface density, CO (J=1-0) for bulk molecular gas surface density, and CN (N=1-0) for dense molecular gas surface density. Radio continuum images for each galaxy were created using Common Astronomy Software Applications (CASA) software package with the PHANGS-ALMA pipeline. Peaks in star formation efficiency for both bulk and dense gas align well with each other and with peaks in radio continuum emission. The galaxy NGC 3256 is highlighted as the main exception, where the locations of the peaks differ. The gas content displays a continuous distribution from spiral to U/LIRG data for both bulk and dense molecular gas surface density, and the dense gas fraction is significantly higher in the U/LIRGs. A Kennicutt-Schmidt (KS) plot reveals a fairly shallow slope, nearly the same as what is seen in spirals, and a dense gas KS relation appears to have a tighter correlation than the bulk gas. This work finds gas depletion times as short as 10-100 Myr, compared to 0.3-3 Gyr for spiral data. This thesis also discusses potential sources of error such as using a single pair of conversion factors from molecular line intensities to gas surface density or contamination from an active galactic nucleus. These results from a substantial sample of 16 extreme galaxies offer valuable insights into the mechanisms driving star formation and potential for future research. / Thesis / Master of Science (MSc)

The work presented in this dissertation provides the groundwork for characterizing multi-scale gaseous media, the interstellar medium (ISM) to the circumgalactic medium (CGM) in a data driven approach. Both the ISM and CGM play fundamental roles in galaxy evolution, yet their relation remains poorly understood due to the vast differences in spatial and temporal scales between them. Bridging the gap between these gaseous media at different scales requires more than observational evidence or theoretical insights in isolation. Instead, it demands a combined effort that integrates both approaches, along with the development of advanced analysis tools capable of capturing and connecting the underlying physical processes. The results of this dissertation demonstrate the power of combining diverse observational features and probes with cutting-edge data analysis techniques. These findings enhance our understanding of structures at the interface between the ISM and CGM, and provides robust methodologies for connecting theoretical models with observations, contributing to a deeper understanding of the multi-scale gas media that impact galaxy evolution.

Quasars, the active supermassive black holes (SMBH) at the center of galaxies, are the most powerful objects in the known universe. Therefore, understanding their properties is essential to our knowledge of the evolution of our universe. The rate of accretion of matter onto the SMBH tells us how these objects grow and evolve. Estimating these accretion rates of quasars currently relies on measurements of the velocity widths of broad optical-UV emission lines. However, as we look farther back in space and time, these lines tend to become weak or inaccessible, leading to increasing uncertainty in accretion-rate estimates. As X-ray radiation is produced very close to the SMBH, it seems logical to investigate whether X-rays can provide a more robust accretion-rate indicator. I present an examination of the optical-X-ray spectral slope, using both archival and newly observed sources, with respect to the accretion-rate and other emission line diagnostics. This analysis confirms recent results involving a new optical-UV parameter, as well as paves the way for the justification of deeper studies of additional X-ray parameters.

La galaxie spirale barrée NGC 5430 est particulière en ce sens qu’elle présente un noeud Wolf-Rayet très lumineux et des bras asymétriques. Des spectres longue-fente le long de la barre et dans le bras déformé ainsi que des données SpIOMM couvrant l’ensemble de la galaxie ont été analysées. L’absorption stellaire sous-jacente a été soustraite des spectres longue-fente à l’aide d’un ajustement de modèles théoriques de populations stellaires fait avec le programme GANDALF. L’absorption a un impact très important sur le calcul de l’extinction ainsi que sur les différents diagnostics propres aux régions HII et aux populations stellaires jeunes. Enfin, cette étude montre que NGC 5430 comporte une composante gazeuse ionisée diffuse sur toute son étendue et qu’il est important d’en tenir compte afin d’appliquer correctement les diagnostics. Un des scénarios évolutifs proposés au terme de cette étude est que le noeud Wolf-Rayet constitue le restant d’une petite galaxie ou d’un nuage intergalactique qui serait entré en collision avec NGC 5430. Une structure englobant le noeud Wolf-Rayet se déplace à une vitesse considérablement inférieure (50 - 70 km s-1) à celle attendue à une telle distance du centre de la galaxie (200 - 220 km s-1). De plus, le noeud Wolf-Rayet semble très massif puisque l’intensité maximale du continu stellaire de cette région est semblable à celle du noyau et est de loin supérieure à celle de l’autre côté de la barre. Le nombre d’étoiles Wolf-Rayet (2150) est aussi considérable. Il n’est toutefois pas exclu que la différence de vitesses observée témoigne d’un écoulement de gaz le long de la barre, qui alimenterait la formation stellaire du noeud Wolf-Rayet ou du noyau. / The barred spiral galaxy NGC 5430 is unique in that it presents a very bright Wolf-Rayet node and asymmetric arms. Long-slit spectra along the bar and in the irregular arm as well as SpIOMM data covering the entire galaxy were analyzed. The underlying absorption was subtracted from the long-slit spectra using the program GANDALF that combines several models of stellar populations. The analysis revealed that the absorption has a very significant impact on the calculation of extinction and on the different diagnosis used to study HII regions and young stellar populations. Finally, this work shows that NGC 5430 has a diffuse ionized gas component superposed over its disk and that it is important to take it into account in order to apply the appropriate diagnosis. A proposed evolutionary scenario is that the Wolf-Rayet node harbors the remains of a small galaxy or an intergalactic cloud that would have collided with NGC 5430. A structure encompassing the Wolf-Rayet node moves at a considerably lower velocity (50 - 70 km s-1) than expected at such a distance from the center of the galaxy (200 - 220 km s-1). Furthermore, the Wolf-Rayet node seems very massive since the maximum intensity of the stellar continuum in this region is similar to that of the nucleus and is far superior to that of an equidistant region on the other side of the bar. The number of Wolf-Rayet stars in the knot also seems very large (2150). It is however not excluded that the observed difference in velocity testifies of a gas flow along the bar, which would nourish star formation at the Wolf-Rayet node or at the galaxy center. v

Le but de ce projet est de démontrer la capacité de l'instrument SITELLE à détecter et à caractériser des galaxies à raies d'émission en arrière-plan d'observations déjà obtenues pour d'autres objectifs scientifiques. Pour ce faire, cinq champs, visant les objets AT Cnc, Arp 94, NGC 1637, Abell 1413 et Abell 2261, ont été étudiés de manière visuelle et avec un algorithme de détection à seuil pour identifier des candidats de galaxies à raies d'émission. Ces méthodes ont permis de trouver un total de 157 galaxies à émission, dont 35 jamais encore cataloguées selon la base de données NED. Par la suite, la modélisation des spectres de chaque galaxie, avec le logiciel ORCS, a permis d'obtenir les décalages vers le rouge de toutes les galaxies, dont 20 avec des décalages confirmés (plus d'une raie dans le spectre) et 143 valeurs de décalage vers le rouge jamais obtenues auparavant. La modélisation des spectres a aussi permis d'estimer le taux de formation stellaire de toutes les galaxies présentant des raies spectrales Hα, Hβ ou [OII]λ3727, pour un total de 153 taux de formation stellaire. En conclusion, le projet démontre bien la capacité de SITELLE à réaliser de telles observations, mais une détection des galaxies à émission, une identification des raies spectrales et une modélisation automatique des spectres seraient nécessaires pour l'appliquer à l'ensemble des observations de SITELLE. / The aim of this project was to demonstrate the ability of the SITELLE instrument to detect and characterize galaxies with emission lines in the background of observations already obtained for other scientific purposes. To do this, five fields, targeting AT Cnc, Arp 94, NGC 1637, Abell 1413 and Abell 2261, were studied visually and with a threshold detection algorithm to identify candidate emission-line galaxies. These methods found a total of 157 emission galaxies, including 35 never before catalogued according to the NED database. Subsequently, the modelling of the spectra of each galaxy, with the ORCS software, made it possible to obtain the redshifts of all the galaxies, including 20 with confirmed shifts (more than one line in the spectrum) and 143 never before obtain redshift values. The modelling of the spectra also made it possible to estimate the star formation rate of all the galaxies presenting Hα, Hβ or [OII]λ3727 spectral lines, for a total of 153 star formation rates. In conclusion, the project clearly demonstrates SITELLE's ability to carry out such observations, but automatic detection of emission galaxies, identification of spectral lines and modelling of spectra would be necessary to apply this technic to all of SITELLE's observations.

My Ph.D. has been composed of work involving the use of far–IR and submm observations of AGN. During this time it has focused on the in- terplay between AGN and their host galaxies and cluster environments. Understanding the role of AGN, and how they affect the evolution of both their host galaxies and surrounding environments, is a pressing concern in cosmological models of the universe, affecting as they do the chemical makeup, star formation rate, and morphology of their host galaxies. In Chapter 2, we focus on attempting to determine whether there is an inherent physical difference between Broad Absorption Line Quasars and non–BAL QSOs using Herschel observations taken at 250, 350 and 500 μm as part of the H–ATLAS (Eales et al. 2010) survey. BAL QSOs have been considered the most visible form of AGN feedback, and therefore are a prime starting point for understanding how galaxy evolution may be affected by the presence of an AGN. By using matched samples of 50 BAL and 329 non–BAL QSOs, we create weighted stacks at each wavelength, finding similar far–IR flux–densities for each sample within the errors. By SED modelling using a simple modified black body (Hildebrand 1983) fit to Mrk 231 and IZw1, we derive likely upper and lower limits for the BAL and non–BAL QSOs in each wavelength, again finding they are consistent within the errors. A bevy of statistical tests run on either population similarly finds no evidence to reject the null hypothesis they are drawn from the same parent population. These results would imply that HiBAL QSOs can be unified with ordinary QSOs within a simple orientation dependent scheme. We cannot make the same distinction for LoBALs or FeLoBALs, which the literature suggests may well be a separate evolutionary phase. In Chapter 3, we determine whether the presence of an AGN correlates to an overdensity of star–forming galaxies in the FIR, as has been found at shorter wavelengths (Falder et al. 2010). For the SHAGs study, 171 AGN were observed and selected at z∼1. By using observations at 250 μm, we are able to trace close to the peak of the grey–body SED created by reprocessing by dust of radiation from young O and B stars. Following data reduction, we determine number counts and correct for completeness within a 1Mpc radius of the central AGN. We find an overdensity on the order of around 0.4 sources per AGN, implying a degree of activity already significantly lower than at higher redshifts. This overdensity appears to be somewhat different between RL AGN and RQQ within 1Mpc. A cor- relation is found between radio luminosity and star formation overdensity, consistent with a stronger dependence found by Falder et al. (2010) at 3.6 μm, and there also appears to be a correlation between stellar mass and star formation overdensity for radio–loud QSOs. The galaxies in the environs of the AGN have LIRG–level luminosities, and are likely the pro- genitors of modern day S0 galaxies, whose population increases steadily from z∼1 to the present day (Postman et al. 2005; Smith et al. 2005). Our work with SCUBA–2, presented in Chapter 4, follows on from a prior sample of X–ray–absorbed QSOs (Stevens et al. 2005). This new sample is composed of more highly–absorbed X–ray QSOs and covers a larger area than the initial sample, so is ideal for an analysis of source counts around AGN at high–redshift. Data from the JCMT have been reduced, and completeness corrections and flux corrections applied to catalogues to determine the number counts around AGN. A comparison background, created using data from the Cosmology Legacy Survey has been used to derive comparison counts. The AGN have been investigated, yet none are detected above 3 at 850 μm, in contrast to the original sample. This may suggest that star formation in their host galaxies has been suppressed. Upon stacking in redshift and BAL classification, no difference in flux– density is apparent and the sources studied here have a similar stacked submm output to an unabsorbed QSO sample created for the original X– ray absorbed QSOs. However, over half of the sources here are BAL QSOs in contrast to the original absorbed QSO sample which contained only 1 BAL QSO. From the work in Chapter 2, one might expect BAL and non–BAL QSOs to have similar flux–densities. We argue that the sources studied in this thesis have likely undergone rapid evolution owing to a strong outflow, and as such star formation has been suppressed sufficiently that the submm emission is below the confusion noise. BAL winds may still be present, but essentially, the show is already over. A similar mechanism may already have occurred in unabsorbed QSOs if all QSOs pass through an X–ray–absorbed phase. With regard to source counts, we find that there is tentative evidence for an overdensity of sources around these AGN. The SFRs of the companion sources have been calculated using several greybody analogues, all of which imply a high degree of activity, suggesting these fields will evolve to become some of the most massive regions at the present epoch, in keeping with current theories of SMGs and high–redshift clusters.

We use the shear catalogue from the CFHT Stripe-82 Survey to measure the subhalo masses of satellite galaxies in redMaPPer clusters. Assuming a Chabrier initial mass function and a truncated NFW model for the subhalo mass distribution, we find that the subhalo mass to galaxy stellar mass ratio increases as a function of projected halo-centric radius r(p), from M-sub/M-star = 4.43(-2.23)(+6.63) at r(p) is an element of [0.1, 0.3] h(-1) Mpc toM(sub)/M-star = 75.40(-19.09)(+19.73) at r(p) is an element of [0.6, 0.9] h(-1) Mpc. We also investigate the dependence of subhalo masses on stellar mass by splitting satellite galaxies into two stellar mass bins: 10 < log (M-star/h(-1) M-circle dot) < 10.5 and 11 < log (M-star/h(-1) M-circle dot) < 12. The best-fitting subhalomass of the more massive satellite galaxy bin is larger than that of the lessmassive satellites: log(M-sub/h(-1) M-circle dot) = 11.14(-0.73)(+0.66) (M-sub/M-star = 19.5(-17.9)(+19.8)) versus log(M-sub/h(-1) M-circle dot) = 12.38(-0.16)(+0.16) (M-sub/M-star = 21.1(-7.7)(+7.4)).

Cette thèse s'attache à l'étude du milieu interstellaire (MIS) des galaxies proches afin de mieux comprendre les processus physiques de ses composantes de gaz et de poussière. Nous nous sommes principalement concentrés sur les galaxies de faible métallicité pour étudier l'influence de l'enrichissement en métaux sur les propriétés du MIS. Les études précédentes ont montré que les densités spectrales d'énergie (SED) des galaxies à faible métallicité présentaient des différences notables avec celles des galaxies plus massives. Le rapport en masse poussière sur gaz (D/G) semble d'ailleurs dépendre de la métallicité. L'observation de ces galaxies conduit souvent à la détection d'un excès submm qui n'est pas pris en compte dans la modélisation actuelle des SEDs. Des études complémentaires sont donc nécessaires pour comprendre les phénomènes physiques liés aux différentes populations de grains de poussière responsables de l'émission IR/submm et d'en sonder les composantes froides. Nous avons adopté une approche multi-longueur d'onde pour modéliser les SEDs de 4 galaxies à faible métallicité observées avec LABOCA (870 μm). La fraction de poussière froide de ces galaxies semble être importante au regard de leur masse totale. Certains D/Gs ne correspondent pas aux prédictions des modèles d'évolution chimique et suggérent la présence de réservoirs de gaz moléculaire non détecté par les observations actuelles en HI et CO. Nous avons élargi cet échantillon à un intervalle plus varié de métallicité et montré que les contraintes submm affectent significativement la masse de poussière totale. La modélisation des galaxies riches en poussière dont les SEDs piquent généralement à grande longueur d'onde nécessite des contraintes submm pour échantillonner à la fois le pic et la pente submm de leur SED. Les galaxies à faible métallicité, quant à elles, peuvent présenter un excès en submm. Cet excès a des conséquences importantes sur la quantification de la masse de poussière et sur la caractérisation de cette poussière froide. Il nous fallait maintenant faire l'inventaire complet de cette population froide de grains et résoudre les principaux acteurs de l'émission IR et submm dans les régions massives de formation d'étoiles et dans les nuages moléculaires. Nous avons obtenu des observations LABOCA du complexe N158/N159/N160, une région intense de formation d'étoiles dans le Grand Nuage de Magellan, située au sud de 30 Doradus. La proximité du nuage de Magellan nous permet de résoudre des structures de quelques parsecs à 870 μm avec LABOCA. Cela permet d'effectuer une étude spatiale de l'évolution des SEDs à travers le complexe afin d'étudier la distribution de température des grains. Je compare également la distribution IR et submm avec les observations déjà disponibles en HI, CO et Hα afin notamment de réaliser une étude spatiale du D/G. Je présente enfin les premières images Herschel des galaxies NGC 6822 et NGC 1705 observées lors de la phase SD du télescope lancé en mai 2009. Pour NGC 6822, nous avons modélisé les SEDs de régions HII ainsi que de régions moins actives. Les SEDs des régions HII présentent des intervalles de températures plus chauds. Nous obtenons des masses de poussières importantes lorsque les graphites sont utilisés pour décrire la poussière carbonnée. L'utilisation de grains de carbone amorphe diminue ces masses de poussière. Cela semble indiquer que les modèles de SED incluant des données Herschel nécessitent l'utilisation des propriétés différentes des poussière.

<p>The barred spiral galaxy M83 (NGC5236) has been observed in the ¹²CO <i>J</i>=1–0 and <i>J</i>=2–1 millimetre lines with the Swedish-ESO Submillimetre Telescope (SEST). The sizes of the CO maps are 100×100, and they cover the entire optical disk. The CO emission is strongly peaked toward the nucleus. The molecular spiral arms are clearly resolved and can be traced for about 360º. The total molecular gas mass is comparable to the total Hi mass, but H₂dominates in the optical disk.</p><p>Iso-velocity maps show the signature of an inclined, rotating disk, but also the effects of streaming motions along the spiral arms. The dynamical mass is determined and compared to the gas mass. The pattern speed is determined from the residual velocity pattern, and the locations of various resonances are discussed. The molecular gas velocity dispersion is determined, and a trend of decreasing dispersion with increasing galactocentric radius is found.</p><p>A total gas (H₂+Hi+He) mass surface density map is presented, and compared to the critical density for star formation of an isothermal gaseous disk. The star formation rate (SFR) in the disk is estimated using data from various star formation tracers. The different SFR estimates agree well when corrections for extinctions, based on the total gas mass map, are made. The radial SFR distribution shows features that can be associated with kinematic resonances. We also find an increased star formation efficiency in the spiral arms. Different Schmidt laws are fitted to the data. The star formation properties of the nuclear region, based on high angular resolution HST data, are also discussed.</p>

This thesis focuses on how a galaxy's environment affects its star formation, from the galactic environment of the most luminous IR galaxies in the universe to groups and massive clusters of galaxies. Initially, we studied a class of high-redshift galaxies with extremely red optical-to-mid-IR colors. We used Spitzer spectra and photometry to identify whether the IR outputs of these objects are dominated by AGNs or star formation. In accordance with the expectation that the AGN contribution should increase with IR luminosity, we find most of our very red IR-luminous galaxies to be dominated by an AGN, though a few appear to be star-formation dominated. We then observed how the density of the extraglactic environment plays a role in galaxy evolution. We begin with Spitzer and HST observations of intermediate-redshift groups. Although the environment has clearly changed some properties of its members, group galaxies at a given mass and morphology have comparable amounts of star formation as field galaxies. We conclude the main difference between the two environments is the higher fraction of massive early-type galaxies in groups. Clusters show even more distinct trends. Using three different star-formation indicators, we found the mass--SFR relation for cluster galaxies can look similar to the field (A2029) or have a population of low-star-forming galaxies in addition to the field-like galaxies (Coma). We contribute this to differing merger histories: recently-accreted galaxies would not have time for their star formation to be quenched by the cluster environment (A2029), while an accretion event in the past few Gyr would give galaxies enough time to have their star formation suppressed by the cluster environment. Since these two main quenching mechanisms depend on the density of the intracluster gas, we turn to a group of X-ray under luminous clusters to study how star-forming galaxies have been affected in clusters with lower than expected X-ray emission. We find the distribution of star-forming galaxies with respect to stellar mass varies from cluster to cluster, echoing what we found for Coma and A2029. In other words, while some preprocessing occurs in groups, the cluster environment still contributes to the quenching of star formation.