<p>This paper deals with the development of scientific geography during Antiquity from its mythical background before the seventh century BC to Claudius Ptolemy during the second century AD. The main focus is on questions concerning the shape of the earth, its place in the universe, size and mapping of the earth. Already before 400 BC, the idea of the earth as a globe was firmly estabished. During classical time, Aristotle used empirical and rational arguments to prove that the earth was a sphere and that it was situated motionless in the center of the universe. In the third century BC, the first reasonably correct measurements of the circumference of the earth was carried out by Eratosthenes. Later, a lower, incorrect measurement of the circumference of the earth was made by Poseidonius. His measurement was for some reason accepted by later geographers.The first map of the earth that we know of is on a clay tablet from Mesopotamia from c. 600 BC. The first useful maps were constructed during the Roman era.</p>

This paper deals with the development of scientific geography during Antiquity from its mythical background before the seventh century BC to Claudius Ptolemy during the second century AD. The main focus is on questions concerning the shape of the earth, its place in the universe, size and mapping of the earth. Already before 400 BC, the idea of the earth as a globe was firmly estabished. During classical time, Aristotle used empirical and rational arguments to prove that the earth was a sphere and that it was situated motionless in the center of the universe. In the third century BC, the first reasonably correct measurements of the circumference of the earth was carried out by Eratosthenes. Later, a lower, incorrect measurement of the circumference of the earth was made by Poseidonius. His measurement was for some reason accepted by later geographers.The first map of the earth that we know of is on a clay tablet from Mesopotamia from c. 600 BC. The first useful maps were constructed during the Roman era.

Il s’agit d’examiner la possibilité d’introduire l’histoire des sciences dans l'enseignement scientifique secondaire français afin de travailler l’image de la nature des sciences. Pour cela, nous avons élaboré, et mis en œuvre dans une classe de terminale S, une séquence à caractère historique basée sur sept textes. Elle porte sur le passage du modèle géocentrique au modèle héliocentrique, et vise à mettre en valeur l’existence et l’évolution de présupposés au sein de la physique. La reprise de cette expérience encadrée par trois questionnaires nous a permis de mieux appréhender l’image de la nature des sciences des élèves. Les résultats obtenus sont encourageants quant à l’évolution de leur représentation de l’observation, plus précisément de sa place dans la démarche scientifique et de son ancrage théorique et métaphysique. Par ailleurs, il semble subsister une vision réaliste « naïve » (les savoirs existent dans le monde) et une difficulté à différencier les registres mis à l’œuvre dans l’activité scientifique en sciences physiques. / The idea is to introduce some elements of the History of Science in the French secondary scientific education in order to give a more authentic view of the Nature of Science (NoS). To do so, a historical inquiry based on seven texts was built and tested in a scientific grade 12 class. This pedagogical unit was about the way scientists switched from geocentric models to heliocentric ones. The purpose was to point out the existence and evolution of presuppositions in physics. This unit was implemented again, this time coupled with three questionnaires that enabled us to explore the image students get of science. The results obtained are encouraging as regards to the evolution of their representations of the observation, more precisely of its metaphysical and theoretical anchoring. Moreover, there seems to be a "naive" realistic vision (knowledge exists in the world) and a difficulty in differentiating the registers used in scientific activity in physics.

<p>Navigation is a very important area of spatial information research that presents researchers with a number of challenges. One of these challenges concerns the nature of spatial information encoding itself: is such encoding the result of a single mechanism system, a two-mechanism system or possibly a mixed system? One possible avenue of insight into this problem centers on the disorientation effect as described in Wang & Spelke (2000). A quick survey of basic findings, terminating with Waller & Hodgson (2006), indicates that there seem to be two systems at work. Moreover, the results obtained are based upon experiments carried out in actual reality. A virtual reality experiment was designed in an attempt to replicate the findings described in Waller & Hodgson (2006). The experiment is described in detail and its results are presented. These were found to be sufficiently reliable to justify pointing to a potentially rich field for future research, including such techniques as combining VR with fMRI to achieve more fine-grained results that cannot currently be obtained from the direct use of actual reality only. Underlying factors such as experimental control and data presentation are briefly described in the discussion section.</p> / Master of Science (MS)

Percevoir son espace d’évolution est une activité déterminante dans l’élaboration des relations spatiales que nous tissons avec notre environnement. En neurosciences comportementales, l’étude de ces relations a généralement été abordée selon deux perspectives théoriques. L’une d’elle s’attache à décrire les relations au monde au travers des processus de perception directe impliquant notamment la notion d’affordances (i.e. de possibilités d’actions naturellement offertes par l’environnement) ; tandis que d’autres s’intéressent d’avantage aux aspects cognitifs de la perception avec la mise en place de processus de représentation spatiale. Cette dernière reflète notamment l’existence d’état(s) représenté(s) qu’il est possible de décrire à travers de la combinaison d’espaces stables appelés référentiels spatiaux. L’objectif de ce travail de thèse vise à mieux comprendre la contribution du référentiel égocentré (i.e. corporel) dans la perception de l’espace géocentré (i.e. gravitaire). La question a notamment été abordée autour de deux axes de recherche interrogeant d’une part (i) l’origine de l’influence égocentrée préalablement observée dans le noir sur la perception géocentrée, et d’autre part (ii) la présence du phénomène égocentré dans un contexte visuel plus enrichi suite à l’ajout d’un flux optique. Pour ce faire quatre études centrées autour d’un paradigme d’estimation des possibilités de franchissement d’obstacles hauts ont été réalisées. Pris dans leur ensemble, les résultats expérimentaux soulignent le caractère particulièrement puissant et complexe du phénomène égocentré corporel observé sur la perception de l’espace gravitaire. Ces résultats, discutés en termes d’interpénétrabilité entre référentiels spatiaux offrent un support d’étude intéressant sur la manière dont les référentiels sont utilisés dans les processus de représentation spatiale. / Perceiving space is a relevant task in determining our relationships with the environment. In behavioral neuroscience, investigating this spatial relationship can classically be explored with two theoretical approaches. The first one uses direct perception to describe the spatial relationships, involving affordances (i.e. the action ability naturally offer by the environment). The other one investigates the cognitive aspect of perception implying the use of spatial representation process. The later one traduces the existence of represented states which can be described through the interaction of different stable states called spatial reference frames. The present work investigates the contribution of the egocentric reference frame (body-related) on the perception of the geocentric space (earth-based). This was questioned through two research lines, (i) the origin of egocentric influence previously observed in darkness upon geocentric perception, (ii) the existence of the egocentric phenomenon in an enriched visual scene. To answer these questions, four experiments were conducted where the paradigm of passing under high obstacles was used. Overall, these results stress the powerful and complex aspect of the egocentric phenomenon observed upon geocentric perception. This work, discussed in term of interpenetrability between reference frames, provide an interesting support on the way how spatial reference frames are used in perceiving space.

The work deals with distance measuring in space. The first part is about evolution of space arrangement and dimension imaginations from ancient times until the 20th century. Also Aristarchos´ heliocentric model of the solar system is described in detail, including his quantitative estimates of the Moon and Sun distances and dimensions. Hipparchos´ and Ptolemaios´ geometric models are described in detail too. Great attention is given to a genesis of heliocentric theory of Nicolaus Copernicus. The second part deals with contemporary methods of distance measuring. The work proceeds systematically from distances in the solar system to distances between stars as far as to distances between galaxies and quasars. It was necessary to write also about physical principles because distance measuring is based on them. The part of the work is a large pictorial supplement with text comments.

Les multinationales qui s’implantent à l'étranger en créant des filiales peuvent recourir à la stratégie globale, multi- nationale,transnationale et internationale afin de gérer leurs entreprises à l'étranger. Le recrutement international est un élément essentiel de lamise en oeuvre des quatre stratégies d’implémentation à l’étranger. Pour le recrutement, l'organisation peut suivre l'une des troisméthodes de dotation ou combiner les trois approches (PCN , HCN, TCN) en fonction des circonstances nationales et du cycle de vie duMNC. Dans les trois approches de recrutement (ethnocentrique, polycentrique, géocentrique) PCN , HCNs et TCN sont utilisés. Toutefois,ils diffèrent dans des proportions relatives. Il y a peu de preuves à l'appui de l'utilisation des HCNs et TCNs . La plupart des recherches ontporté sur les expatriés ( PCN) de HCN et TCN. Pour cette raison, nous voulons étudier, dans notre travail, dans quelles situations lesmultinationales utilisent les approches HCNs et TCN . Notre étude examine l'alignement entre la stratégie commerciale internationale et lerecrutement des dirigeants. Les fondements théoriques sont tirés essentiellement de la littérature existante.Les données primaires ont été recueillies auprès des cadres supérieurs de 22 multinationales. Des entretiens approfondis ont été menés etdes questions ouvertes ont été utilisés pour examiner l'alignement entre la stratégie commerciale internationale et le recrutement desdirigeants dans une filiale, le rôle joué par les expatriés au cours des différents cycles de vie de l'organisation. Les multinationalesparticipant à notre échantillon proviennent de Singapour, Dubaï, Inde, France, Pays-Bas et Belgique. L'analyse des données est basée sur laphilosophie interprétative. L'analyse des propositions de recherche révèle que le modèle de résultat est cohérent lorsque la pression de lanormalisation est plus élevée et l'utilisation de la dotation ethnocentrique ( PCN) est plus importante. Plus la pression de la normalisationest faible, plus les multinationales ont recourent à d'autres méthodes de recrutement- recrutement polycentrique ( HCNs ). La structureest partiellement cohérente avec l'alignement de la stratégie de recrutement lorsque plus la réactivité locale est plus élevée que lerecrutement polycentrique ne devrait être. Mais dans une situation donnée, le recrutement ethnocentrique est légèrement pluspolycentrique, même si la réactivité locale est élevée. Les résultats étendent l'application des théories soutenues pour expliquer lastratégie de l'entreprise et le recrutement des dirigeants et cadres et contribuent au développement des connaissances. L’implication desrésultats et des recherches futures sont recommandés. / Multinationals that are moving abroad for its subsidiary operation may use any one of the typology such as Global, Multi-domestic,Transnational, and International strategy in order to manage and maintain their business abroad. International staffing is a critical elementof the implementation of the four strategies for doing business globally. In staffing the international operation, the organization mayfollow one of the three staffing approaches or a combination of three approaches (PCN, HCN, TCN) depending on their domesticcircumstances and the life cycle of the MNC. In all the three staffing approaches (Ethnocentric, Polycentric, Geocentric) PCNs, HCNs andTCNs are used. But they will differ in relative proportions. There is little evidence in support of the utilization of HCNs and TCNs. Most ofthe research focused on expatriates (PCNs) than HCNs and TCNs. Therefore we want to explore on what situations multinationals useHCNs and TCNs. Further the study investigates the alignment between international business strategy and executive staffing. Theoreticalfoundations are drawn basically from existing literature.Primary data were collected from top executives of 22 multinationals. In depth interviews were conducted and open ended questionswere used to examine the alignment between international business strategy and executive staffing for subsidiary operation, expatriateroles during organization’s different life cycle. The multinationals participated in our sample are from Singapore, Dubai, India, France,Netherlands, and Belgium. The data analysis is based on interpretative philosophy. The analysis of the proposed research expectationrevealed that the pattern of result is consistent when higher the pressure for standardization, utilization of ethnocentric staffing (PCNs) ismore. Whereas the pressure for standardization is low, then multinationals used other staffing approaches - polycentric staffing (HCNs).The pattern is partially consistent with strategy staffing alignment when the higher the local responsiveness then the utilization ofpolycentric staffing should be more. But in the given situation, ethnocentric staffing is slightly more than polycentric even when the localresponsiveness is high. The findings extend the application of the underpinned theories and their beliefs in explaining the businessstrategy and executive staffing relationship and contribute to the body of knowledge. Implications of the results and direction for futureresearch are recommended.