Diversos países têm direcionado esforços para redução de emissões de Gases de Efeito Estufa (GEEs), acompanhados de medidas de adaptação aos cenários de mudanças climáticas e mitigação de seus efeitos. Ao mesmo tempo, o padrão de crescimento urbano atual tem sido apontado como fator de aumento da ineficiência dos fluxos de matéria e energia nas cidades. Mais especificamente, são encontradas relações entre padrões de uso do solo urbano, o comportamento de viagens da população e a necessidade de utilização de energia para seu deslocamento diário. Deste modo, o presente trabalho volta-se para a avaliação dos efeitos do crescimento urbano disperso na eficiência energética das cidades, especificamente no que tange à eficiência dos deslocamentos intra-urbanos para a realização das principais atividades diárias da população. Deste modo, a presente pesquisa propôs a elaboração de cenários de emissões de GEEs para a cidade de São Carlos (SP) como indicadores de eficiência dos deslocamentos. Foi elaborado um cenário inicial para o ano de 2010 e nove cenários prospectivos (um tendencial e oito alternativos) para 2050, permitindo a comparação entre alternativas de desenvolvimento urbano. As alternativas variaram em relação aos fatores de dispersão e compactação da área urbana; concentração e homogeneização da distribuição espacial das atividades (atratores de deslocamento) e dos locais de moradia da população (geradores de deslocamento); e alterações nas escolhas entre os modos de transporte pela população. O cenário representativo das tendências de dispersão observadas atualmente apresentou um aumento de 135,6% das emissões em relação a 2010. Como mais eficiente, o cenário com distribuição mais compacta das moradia, distribuição mais homogênea dos locais de realização das atividades, a população opta por residir em locais mais próximos aos locais de trabalho e estudo e o transporte coletivo é mais utilizado que o individual, apresentou uma quantidade de emissões 74,89% menores que o cenário tendencial e 40,9% menores que o cenário para 2010. Os níveis de emissões calculados para a cidade de São Carlos, ainda que relativamente baixos quando considerados de modo isolado, demonstram a relevância de se levar em conta a eficiência energética no planejamento da rede urbana de transportes e, mais ainda, no planejamento das formas e arranjos espaciais da cidade. / Many countries have spent efforts to reduce Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) emissions, together with strategies of adaptation to new scenarios of climate changes and mitigation of its effects. At the same time, the pattern of growth of the cities, known as urban sprawl, has been reported as associated to the increase of inefficiency of flows of matter and energy in the cities. More specifically, relationships between patterns of urban land use, travel behavior of the population and the need to use energy for your daily commute are found, specifically with respect to the efficiency of intra-urban displacement to perform the daily activities of the population. Therefore, this research proposed the elaboration of scenarios of GHG emissions for the city of São Carlos (SP) as indicators of efficiency of displacement. An initial scenario for the year 2010 and nine prospective scenarios (one trend and eight alternative) to the horizon of 2050 were prepared, allowing the comparison of alternative urban development. Alternatives varied according to the scatter and compacting factors of the urban area; concentration and homogenization of the spatial distribution of activities (displacement attractors) and dwelling places of the population (displacement generators); and changes in choices between modes of transport by population. The scenario representative of the dispersion trends currently observed increased by 135.6% emissions compared to 2010 As the most efficient, the scenario with more compact distribution of housing, more homogeneous distribution of the local of activities, the population chooses to reside in closer to places of work and study and the local public transportation is more used than the individual, presented an amount of 74.89% lower emissions than the trends scenario and 40.9% lower than the scenario for 2010. Although the emissions levels calculated to the city of São Carlos are considered low when compared with other cities, the study shows the relevance of considering the energy efficiency in the urban transport system planning and, moreover, in the planning of urban arrangements.

Uma das principais externalidades dos transportes na dimensão urbana é a emissão de poluentes locais e a geração de gases de efeito estufa (GEE). O estudo tem por finalidade quantificar as emissões da frota de ônibus urbano de uma cidade brasileira e propor um mecanismo de mitigação de GEE. Para atingir o objetivo, o estudo apresenta os combustíveis e tecnologias disponíveis no Brasil, e através de uma meta-análise identifica as combinações de combustível e tecnologia que proporcionam a maior redução das emissões de CO, HC, NOx, MP e CO2e. Os resultados da análise mostram que algumas das opções de combustível e tecnologia que apresentam melhor desempenho são: B100 associado ao DPF e SCR, GNV associado ao 3WC, B20 associado ao DPF e SCR, e D15 associado ao DPF e SCR. A seguir, as contribuições dos mecanismos de mitigação de GEE para o setor de transportes são analisadas. O impacto do Mecanismo de Desenvolvimento Limpo (MDL) no setor é limitado, e não há muitas perspectivas de atuação. As Ações de Mitigação Nacionalmente Apropriadas (NAMAs), têm potencial para atuar na redução de GEE, e devem proporcionar apoio financeiro oriundo dos fundos climáticos para as ações implantadas nos países em desenvolvimento. Um estudo de caso foi desenvolvido para avaliar a possibilidade de elaboração de uma NAMA para a renovação da frota de ônibus urbano de uma cidade. Os resultados obtidos na meta-análise foram aplicados para avaliar o combustível e tecnologia que proporcionam maior redução das emissões. Os resultados mostram que a renovação da frota tem potencial de desenvolvimento de uma NAMA, visto que reduz emissões de GEE e proporciona co-benefícios; contudo, deve-se estabelecer um sistema de MRV (Monitorar, Reportar, Verificar) capaz de quantificar as emissões na mitigação. / One of the main externalities from urban transportation is the emission of local pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG). The study aims to quantify the emissions from the urban bus fleet of a Brazilian city and propose a GHG mitigation mechanism. First, the study presents the fuels and technologies available in Brazil, and through a meta-analysis identifies combinations of fuel and technology that provide the greatest reduction in emissions of CO, HC, NOx, PM and CO2e. Results show the fuel and technology that perform best are: B100 associated with DPF and SCR, CNG associated with 3WC, B20 associated with DPF and SCR, and D15 associated with DPF and SCR. The contribution of GHG mitigation mechanisms for the transport sector was analyzed. The impact of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in the sector is limited, and there are not many perspectives for the future. The Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions, named NAMAs, have the potential to act in reducing GHG in transport sector, and should provide financial cooperation through climate funds for implementation of actions in developing countries. A case study was developed to evaluate the possibility of developing a NAMA for the renewal of the fleet of urban buses in a Brazilian city. The results obtained in the meta-analysis were applied to evaluate which fuel and technology provide greater reductions in emission. The results show that the renewal of the fleet has the potential for developing a NAMA, since it reduces greenhouse gas emissions and provide co-benefits; however it requires a serious MRV (Monitor, Report, Verify) capable of quantifying the mitigation of emissions.

The rising global temperatures are a consequence of the increasing concentrations of the greenhouse gases (GHG) in our atmosphere. This unprecedented yet steady increase in GHG concentrations has led to an increase in the incidence of adverse high-temperature weather phenomena. The aim of this study was to perform a detailed and systematic literature review to study the global dynamic between elevated ambient Page 28 2016 Appalachian Student Research Forum temperatures and heat-related mortality. The review also aimed at exploring the effect of pollutants as possible confounders, to identify vulnerable populations and to study population adaptations to heat that might mitigate heat-related mortality in urban settings. The review was performed exclusively on PubMed. Only epidemiological studies were selected. A time constraint ranging from 2009 to 2015 was applied to the review findings. Only peer-reviewed journals published in the English language were included. The following key terms were used for heat-related mortality associations - heat, high temperature and mortality. Additional keywords were used for the confounders, vulnerable populations and adaptations sections, such as “ozone”, “vulnerable subgroups” or “adaptations”. Studies reporting data on cold effects were excluded from the review. The search resulted in a total of 83 studies, which were included in the review based on the selection criteria. These studies were categorized and presented in four sections - heatmortality associations, effects of pollutants as confounders, vulnerable populations and adaptations. It was found that elevated ambient temperature was associated with high mortality. Additionally, risks of mortality were found to be higher for certain populations, particularly the elderly (65 years or older), infants and the socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. In conclusion, the heat-associated risks of mortality have increased with the escalating climate-change scenario. However, it is important to note that these risks are dependent on factors such as geographical location, socioeconomic status, age, and occupational status. Adaptations to heat are possible in the form of increased use of air-conditioning and promotion of “green” living spaces.

Fossil fuel depletion, economic development, urban expansion and climate change present tough challenges to municipal- and regional-scale energy systems. Regional energy system planning, including waste treatment, renewable energy supply, energy efficiency, and climate change, are considered essential to meet these challenges and move toward a sustainable society. This thesis includes studies on energy system from municipal waste, potential for a fossil fuel-independent regional energy system with increased renewable energy products using waste as one of energy sources, and the performance of biomass-fired combined heat and power (CHP) plants. A top-down method is adopted to organize the studies, from national waste-to-energy (WtE) scenarios to individual energy plants. The first study considers the overall potential contribution of WtE to energy supply and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions mitigation in Sweden until 2050 under several different scenarios. Depending on WtE scenario considered, the study shows that WtE can supply energy between 38 and 186 TWh and mitigate between CO2 of 1 and 12 Mt per year by 2050 based on the baseline of year 2010. At a regional level, static and dynamic optimization models with a focus on WtE are developed for two regions in Sweden and Finland. The former is used to investigate the possibilities of optimal positioning of new energy plants, retrofitting existing energy plants and planting energy crops. The latter case study is on regional heat and power production using biogas generated from agricultural and livestock wastes. Centralized biogas production units perform better than distributed production regarding energy and carbon balance though the net energy output is negligible. However, a significant GHG emission can be reduced compared to the present status. Retrofitting existing conventional CHP plants is another option for improving regional energy system. The study shows that integrating heat-demanded processes such as drying, bioethanol and pellet production with existing CHP plants can improve overall energy efficiency and power output, increase annual operation time and reduce production cost as well as mitigate GHG emissions.  It is recommended that building new WtE/energy plants at optimum sites, upgrading the existing energy plants, expanding the agricultural/forestry waste/residues output (biomass) and planting more energy crops shall be taken into considerations for the future regional energy systems. / Utarmning av fossila bränslekällor, ekonomisk utveckling, städernas utbredning och klimatförändring är svåra utmaningar för kommunala- och regionala energisystem. Planering av det regionala energisystemet, inklusive avfallshantering, förnyelsebara energikällor, energieffektivisering och hänsyn till klimatförändringar, anses avgörande för att möta dessa utmaningar och gå mot ett hållbart samhälle. Denna avhandling innehåller studier av energisystem centrerad kring hushållsavfall, potentialet för fossilbränslefria regionala energisystem som utnyttjar ökad andel förnyelsebara energiprodukter med avfall som en energikälla och prestandautvärdering av ett biomassa-eldat kraftvärmeverk. Studierna har organiserats efter storlek på system, från nationella avfall-till-energi scenarier till enskilda kraftverk.   Den första studien behandlar övergripande möjligheten att genom avfall-till-energi bidra till energiförsörjningen och begränsa utsläppet av växthusgaser i Sverige till 2050 under flera olika scenarier. Beroendet på avfall-till-energiscenario visar studien att genom att utnyttja avfall kan mellan 38 och 186 TWh energi levereras och dessutom kan koldioxidutsläppen reduceras med 1-12 miljoner ton till år 2050 med 2010 som basår.   På den regionala nivån, statiska och dynamiska optimeringsmodeller, med fokus på avfall-till-energi, är utvecklats för två regioner, en i Sverige och en i Finland. Det första modellen används för hitta den optimala placeringen av nya energianläggningar, anpassning av befintliga anläggningar och placering av odlingar av energigrödor. Den senare ingår i en fallstudie av den regionala kraft- och värmeproduktionen genom utnyttjande av biogas producerad från jordbruksavfall och djurgödsel. Centraliserade biogasanläggningar presterar bättre än decentraliserad anläggningar när det gäller energi – och kolbalanser även om i båda fallen så är skillnaden mellan konsumerad mängd bränsle, värme och el och producerad värme och el försumbar. Däremot kan en betydande mängd av växthusgasutsläppet i båda fallen undvikas jämfört med nuläget.   Anpassning av befintliga konventionella kraftvärmeverk är ett annat alternativ för att förbättra det regionala energisystemet. Studien visar att genom att integrera värmekrävande processer såsom torkning, bioetanol- och pelletsproduktion med befintliga kraftvärmeverk kan den totala energieffektiviten och uteffekten förbättras, öka den årliga drifftiden och minska produktionskostnaderna och utsläppen av växthusgaser.   Rekommendationen är att för de framtida regionala energisystemen överväga att bygga nya avfall-till-energianläggningar med optimal placering, uppgradera befintliga energianläggningar utöka insamlandet av avfall/restprodukter från jord- och skogbruk och plantera mer energigrödor.

Abstract That greenhouse gas (GHG) emission causes ¡§Global Warming¡¨ is a human common problem today in the earth. The GHG emission will gradually promote our weather temperature and change which we must pay for a lot. For example, the warming temperature will dissolve icebergs, that it will elevate the sea level. Also, our land area will decrease. If climate zones were shifted, it would be possible to initiate some animals migrate. In the worse case, our living space will be squeezed and some special diseases will be spread out¡Ketc. In view of environmental protection awareness in every country, we must face the problem and crisis which comes from ¡§Global Warming¡¨ and ¡§Heating Pollution¡¨. In June of 1992, there was a meeting in Rio of Brazil. All representatives who comes from 153 different countries sign an agreement ¡V the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). They try to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate and environmental system. To achieve this goal, the Kyoto Protocol was adopted on COP3 in December 1997 to place legally binding limits on GHG emissions. This Protocol norms 38 countries and European Union. In June 2007, the Group of Eight (G8) have reached a consensus and expect in year 2050, CO2 emissions can be reduced to the half of current emissions. We can see that, every country is vigorous to look for alternative energy that eliminates the environment destroyed and saves the earth resources. For example, Solar Energy, Water Energy, Wind Energy, Biomass Energy, Ocean Energy and Geothermal Energy¡Ketc. Those are gradually developed and applied in our daily life. My research is focus on the LED applications based on the substitution of traditional lighting. Actually, LED has all advantage of the energy saving, eco-lighting and economy of scale. How to use this alternative lighting is of great urgency and the major topic in light source manufacturers. For example, if America can replace their 55% white heat bulbs and 55% fluorescent lamps by LED before 2010, they can save 35 billion US dollars every year. For Japan, if they replace 100% white heat bulbs, they can save one to two of Nuclear Power Plants. Also, they can save above 100 million of gasoline every year. As to Taiwan official estimation, we can save 11 billion electricity degrees every year when we replace 25% white heat bulbs and 100% fluorescent lamps. That electric power is approximate to save one Nuclear Power Plant and 50 million of gasoline every year. According to the data above, the population of LED will give us a lot of eco-benefits. My report leans on researching and treating LED. Then, I take one step ahead to demonstrate how important it is to apply LED on our human light source and the effects of earth environment. Keywords: Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Global Warming United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Kyoto Protocol Biomass Energy LED - Light Emitting Diode (display)

As is now generally accepted, climate change and environmental degradation has largely been triggered by carbon emissions and energy modeling for policy analysis has therefore attained renewed urgency. It is important for governments to satisfy emission targets and timetables set down by international agreements without disregarding macroeconomic concerns and restrictions. In this study, we present a large-scale nonlinear optimization model that allows the analysis of macroeconomic and multi-sectoral energy policies in respect of technological and environmental options and scenarios. The model consists of a detailed representation of energy activities and disaggregates the rest of the economy into five main sectors. Economy-wide solutions are obtained by computing a utility maximizing aggregate consumption bundle on the part of a representative household. Intersectoral and foreign transaction balances are maintained using a modified accounting matrix. The model also computes the impact on macroeconomic variables of greenhouse gas (GHG) emission strategies and abatement schemes. As such the model is capable of producing solutions that can be used to benchmark regulatory instruments and policies. Several scenarios are presented for the case of Turkey in which the impact of a nuclear power programme and power generation coupled with carbon-capture-and-storage schemes are investigated as well as setting quotas on total and sectoral GHG emissions.

Models showing the anthropogenic and natural flows of two sustainability indicators; carbon based GHG and energy (as work energy) have been made for the Swedish region Jämtland. The methodology used was inspired by the study sustainability analysis conducted on the small Danish island Samsø using the above two indicators. The aim was to upscale the methodology used for Samsø and make necessary adaptations for Jämtland in order to be able to evaluate sustainability in terms of global warming. We also wanted to study the linkages between research, education and regional sustainability initiatives. Working at a regional level has advantages compared to working at a national or global level, as socio-ecological processes can be covered more extensively to reach a deeper understanding of practical aspects. In parallel to this we have also been participating in local and regional sustainability activities to increase our understanding of practical approaches and human behaviour. Studies of the energy flows in Jämtland show that 46,000 TJ (88% renewable) flows into the region and about 31,000 TJ is exported. The remaining 15,000 TJ (63% renewable) drives ‘the machine Jämtland’. Added to this is about 4000TJ as matter. The total global warming potential (GWP20) impact of Jämtland (as carbon dioxide equivalents, CO 2eq ) indicating influence on the global mean temperature as radiative forcing) is an annual uptake of 2.4 Mton. The total regional emissions, as CO 2eq, from anthropogenic activities, including consumption, are 1500 kton. The region has large emissions of methane, 80kton (6700 kton CO 2eq ), mainly from mires, lakes and animals but also large uptakes of CO2 from assimilation in woody biomass. Jämtland can be regarded as relatively sustainable from several perspectives, but taking the large forests and a population of only 127,000 inhabitants into consideration, the total uptake of CO 2eq is not very large and of the 15,000 TJ driving Jämtland, 37% comes from non-renewable sources. From a national (and global) perspective Jämtland needs to perform better, in view of its considerable reserves of natural resources. How to increase long-term sustainability in the region is a complex issue that requires penetration from many perspectives. Modelling results presented here needs to be interpreted in a broader sustainability context, together with regional stakeholders, to serve as a base for future knowledge development and sustainability activities. / Två modeller har utvecklats för att studera antropogena och naturliga flöden av energi (exergi) och kolbaserade växthusgasflöden i Jämtland. Metodiken har inspirerats av en metodik för att göra hållbarhetsanalyser som genomförts för den lilla danska ön Samsø utifrån dessa båda indikatorer. Att arbeta på regional nivå har fördelar gentemot att arbeta på en nationell eller global nivå eftersom man har större möjligheter att gå ned på djupet både gällande samhälleliga processer och ekologiska processer. Kopplingen mellan siffror och faktiska skeenden blir tydligare. Parallellt med arbetet med de regionala modellerna har vi också deltagit i lokalt och regionalt arbete för att förståelsen omkring praktiska angreppssätt och mänskligt beteende. Studien av energiflöden i Jämtland visar att 46.000 TJ (varav 88% förnyelsebart) flödar in i regionen och 31.000 TJ exporteras ut och att resterande 15.000 TJ (varav 63% förnyelsebart) driver maskineriet Jämtland. Till detta kommer omkring 4000 TJ i form av material. Den totala GWP20-påverkan från Jämtland är ’kylande’ och motsvarar ett upptag av koldioxid-ekvivalenter årligen på 2.4 Mton, vilket ungefär motsvarar emissionen från225.000 genomsnittssvenskar. De totala antropogena emissionerna av CO 2eq , inklusive konsumtion, är 1500 kton. Regionen uppvisar betydande emissioner av metan, 80 kton (motsvarande 6700 kton CO 2eq ) från sjöar, myrar och våtmarker samt djur. Jämtland kan ur flera perspektiv betraktas som relativt hållbart, men tar man de enorma skogsarealerna och den i ett internationellt perspektiv blygsamma befolkningen på 127 000 personer i beaktande är hållbarheten mindre övertygande. Vidare är 37% av den energi som driver Jämtland faktiskt icke-förnyelsebar. Sett ur ett globalt perspektiv och med hänvisning till Jämtlands enorma naturresurser behöver Jämtland prestera bättre. Hur man skall kunna öka den långsiktiga hållbarheten är en komplex fråga som kräver belysning från flera olika perspektiv. Resultat som de som presenteras här måste tolkas tillsammans med regionala intressenter i ett bredare hållbarhetssammanhang för att kunna utarbeta lämpliga implementeringsstrategier. / <p>Vid tidpunkten för framläggningen av avhandlingen var följande delarbete opublicerat: delarbete 4 (manuskript).</p><p>At the time of the defence the following paper was unpublished: paper 4 (manuscript).</p>

Au cours des soixante dernières années, la population mondiale a connu un sursaut spectaculaire, passant de 2,5 milliards d’habitants à la fin de la Seconde Guerre mondiale à 7 milliards en 2011. Cette croissance démographique se distingue des précédents épisodes tant par son importance que par l'apparition conjointe d'une tendance nouvelle et soutenue à la concentration des populations au sein des villes. Appelée à se renforcer partout dans le monde, cette tendance au grossissement des villes lance un véritable défi à la communauté internationale en matière de durabilité de notre système économique en général et alimentaire en particulier. Cette thèse propose un traitement théorique de la question de la durabilité des systèmes d'approvisionnement alimentaires en milieu urbain. A la frontière entre économie publique et économie géographique, elle poursuit comme objectif principal de permettre la conduite d'une analyse formalisée des arbitrages environnementaux et sociaux dans un cadre spatial explicite. En outre, l'idée selon laquelle aucune réponse ne saurait être satisfaisante sans qu'une attention spécifique soit portée aux interactions spatiales, économiques et écologiques entre espaces urbains et agriculture constitue l'un des positionnements clés défendus dans ce travail. De manière générale, les travaux de cette thèse font apparaître l'élément majeur suivant: du fait de la forte et inextricable interconnexion entre milieux urbain et rural, l'évaluation environnementale, sociale et économique d'un système alimentaire ne peut se faire qu'en connaissance des caractéristiques démographique et physique de la ville concernée. / Over the past sixty years, the world population has experienced a dramatic surge from 2.5 billion people by the end of World War II, to 7 billion in 2011. This population growth differs from previous episodes not only in importance, but also because of the joint emergence of a new and ongoing trend of rising urbanization. Expected to strengthen worldwide, this trend is a real challenge for the international community in terms of sustainability, especially for food supply. This thesis provides a theoretical treatment of food supply chain sustainability in a context of rapid and unrelenting urbanization. Halfway between economic geography and environmental economics, its primary goal is to allow for a theoretical formalization of ecological and social trade-offs in a spatially explicit framework. Besides, we argue that this issue cannot satisfactorily resolved without paying specific attention to urban-rural interactions. Our work discloses the following major element : because of the tight and inextricable interconnection between urban and rural areas, the ecological assessment of any food supply chain can only be achieved by taking into account both the demographic and physical features of cities.

La lutte contre le changement climatique implique de modifier les modes de production et de consommation actuels pour réduire de façon drastique les émissions de gaz à effet de serre dont la grande majorité est liée à la combustion d’énergies fossiles. Face à ces enjeux, de nombreux pays se sont engagés dans une transition énergétique pour faire évoluer leur système énergétique, notamment électrique de façon à répondre en partie aux exigences d’une économie bas carbone. Pour guider les acteurs dans leurs choix stratégiques, des outils d’aide à la décision s’avèrent efficaces pour identifier les leviers potentiels de réduction des impacts environnementaux, notamment par la méthode d’Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV) qui évalue les impacts d’un produit sur tout son cycle de vie. L’un de ses développements, l’ACV conséquentielle, vise à analyser les impacts d’un changement, et prend donc en compte ses effets directs et indirects sur l’environnement. Cette méthode reste encore peu utilisée par les praticiens en raison du manque d’inventaires génériques pour ACV conséquentielle. Ce constat est d’autant plus marquant pour l’électricité, largement utilisée dans la technosphère, dont la production évolue significativement pour s’engager dans la transition énergétique. Les travaux présentés ici visent à proposer une méthode d’élaboration d’inventaires électricité génériques pour ACV conséquentielle, qui intègrent les spécificités techniques du produit électricité, à travers le bouquet énergétique ou mix qui combine les différents moyens de production, variables selon le pays considéré. Afin de parvenir à simplifier les mix de production d’électricité, une typologie est établie à partir de l’étude des émissions de Gaz à Effet de Serre (GES), des mix et de leur décomposition en moyens de production. Elle identifie 4 groupes de pays, classés par émissions GES croissantes, i.e., 0-37 gCO2eq/kWh, 37-300 gCO2eq/kWh, 300-600 gCO2eq/kWh et >600gCO2eq/kWh, et qui possèdent des caractéristiques de composition spécifiques. Afin de se positionner dans une perspective conséquentielle, l’évolution de douze mix électriques de 1960 à 2010 est analysée. L’analyse historique des phénomènes de transition, c’est-à-dire le passage d’un groupe à un autre de la typologie, est ensuite proposée. Un modèle basé sur une optimisation mono-objectif impliquant, dans un premier temps, un critère de minimisation des émissions GES, et puis dans un second temps, un critère de maximisation de la production d’origine renouvelable est développé. Les résultats sont discutés sur la base des données historiques. La méthode développée reste cependant suffisamment générique pour s’appliquer à des évolutions futures de mix. Enfin, une méthode d’élaboration des inventaires génériques est proposée. Prenant en compte les différentes situations auxquelles le praticien pourrait être confronté lors de la réalisation d’une ACV conséquentielle d’un produit, elle rend possible l’élaboration des inventaires électricité génériques pour ACV conséquentielle. L’établissement de données génériques quantifiées nécessiterait l’intégration d’un critère qualitatif d’inertie au changement et la validation de plusieurs cas d’étude à travers une étude statistique pour consolider les résultats / Climate change mitigation involves changes in production and consumption ways to boost a radical decrease in Greenhouse Gases (GHG) emissions, which come mostly from fossil fuels combustion. To meet these challenges, a lot of countries initiated an energy transition to switch to new energy system, especially concerning electricity production, in such a way that they partly fulfil low carbon economy requirements. To provide decision-makers guidance in their strategic choices, decision-aid tools are useful to identify and reduce environmental impacts burdens. In particular, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) which assesses environmental impacts throughout a product's life cycle is now a recognized and standard approach. Consequential LCA (cLCA), one of its most recent developments, assesses changes consequences considering either direct or indirect effects on environment. Currently, due to the lack of generic consequential Life Cycle Inventories (LCI), cLCA is scarcely used by practicioners. This situation is emphasized for electricity, due to its large involvement in technosphere and its shifts to production modes in the context of energy transition. This work aims at the development of a design methodology for generic inventories for consequential LCA, taking in account electricity technical specificities. Electricity is defined here as a different production means combination (a “mix”) which varies from country to country. To simplify electricity production mix, a typology is set using a GHG emissions study and electricity mix separation in production means. The typology identifies four groups, ranked by increasing GHG emissions, i.e, 0-37 gCO2eq/kWh, 37-300 gCO2eq/kWh, 300-600 gCO2eq/kWh and >600 gCO2eq/kWh, and specific compositions. Considering a consequential perspective, an evolution analysis of twelve selected countries from 1960 to 2010 is then conducted. Thus, an analysis of past transitions, i.e., shifting from a group to another, is given. Amono-objective optimisation model is developed, involving, first, the minimisation of GHG emissions, and secondly, the maximisation of renewable sources contribution. Significant results are then discussed based on historical data. The model is yet generic enough and can be applied to future mixes. Finally, a generic inventory development method for consequential LCA is proposed. Taking into account the different situations that practitioners may potentially meet when performing a consequential LCA of a product, the method makes generic inventory development for consequential LCA possible. The establishment of generic data would yet require the addition of a qualitative inertia-tochange criteria and the validation of various cases using a statistical analysis to strengthen the obtained results.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:52:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RicardoTGA.pdf: 3343340 bytes, checksum: b7d667a5f20a1f26a7371755e94dcc8c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-11-19 / Instituto Federal de Educa??o, Ci?ncia e Tecnologia do Rio Grande do Norte / As a contemporary tendency, it is been evidenced that the environmental changes theme, already admitted as a concernment to international economical and political reality, is also gaining repercussion on industrial and business sector. Firms are implementing actions on trial to minimize their own greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions impacts. However, the great majority of those actions of Corporative Social-Environmental Responsibility (CSR) are referred only to direct emissions of the main production systems. Direct emissions are those derived of an isolate process, without considering the upstream and downstream processes emissions, which respond for the majority of emissions originated because of respective firm&#8223;s production system existence. Because the greenhouse effect occurs globally and the GHG emissions contribute to the environmental changes independently of their origin, it must be taken into account the whole productive life cycle of products and systems, since the energy invested on resources extraction and necessary materials to the final disposal. To do so, it must be investigated all relevant steps of a product/production system life cycle, tracking all activities which emit greenhouse gases, directly or indirectly. This amount of emissions consists in the firm&#8223;s Carbon Footprint. This research purpose is to defend the Carbon Footprint relevance and its adoption viability to be used as an Environmental Indicator on measurement/assessment of CSR. It has been realized a study case on Petrobras&#8223;s seat unity at Natal-Brazil, assessing part of its Carbon Footprint. It has been used the software GEMIS 4.6 to do the emissions quantifying. The items measured were the direct emissions of the own unity vehicles and indirect emissions of offset paper (A4), energy and disposable plastic cups consumed. To 2009, these emissions were 3.811,94 tCO2eq. We may conclude that Carbon Footprint quantification is indispensable to the knowledge of real emissions caused by a productive process existence, must serving as basis to CSR decisions about the environmental changes reversion challenge / Contemporaneamente, se est? constatando que o tema das altera??es clim?ticas, j? integralizado como preocupa??o da realidade pol?tica e econ?mica internacional, vem tamb?m adquirindo abrang?ncia e repercuss?o nos setores industriais e empresariais. As empresas, em seu enquadramento no novo conceito de combate ? mudan?a do clima, t?m adotado algumas medidas na tentativa de minimizar os impactos das suas pr?prias emiss?es de Gases Efeito Estufa (GEE). Contudo, a grande maioria das a??es de Responsabilidade Socioambiental Empresarial (RSE) quanto a essa tem?tica referem-se apenas ?s emiss?es diretas dos principais processos produtivos empresariais. As emiss?es diretas s?o aquelas derivadas de um processo isolado, sem considerar os processos upstream e downstream, os quais respondem pela a maior parte das emiss?es derivadas da exist?ncia de uma determinada empresa. Haja vista que o efeito estufa sobrev?m de forma global, e que as emiss?es de GEE contribuem para as mudan?as clim?ticas independentemente de sua origem, deve-se levar em considera??o todo o ciclo de vida produtivo de produtos e processos, desde a energia investida na extra??o da mat?ria-prima e insumos necess?rios at? o descarte final. Para se fazer isso, deve-se esquadrinhar todos os passos relevantes ao longo do ciclo de vida de um produto/processo produtivo, rastreando todas as atividades que emitam direta ou indiretamente GEE. O somat?rio dessas consiste justamente na Pegada de Carbono da empresa. A finalidade desse estudo ? defender a relev?ncia da Pegada de Carbono e viabilidade de ado??o desta para ser usada como Indicador de Sustentabilidade na avalia??o/mensura??o da RSE. Para isso, foi realizado um estudo de caso na unidade sede da Petrobras em Natal-RN, avaliando-se parte de sua Pegada de Carbono. Para a quantifica??o das emiss?es, foi utilizado o software GEMIS 4.6. Os itens medidos foram as emiss?es diretas dos ve?culos pr?prios da unidade e emiss?es indiretas do papel offset A4, energia el?trica e copos pl?sticos descart?veis consumidos. Para o exerc?cio de 2009, mensuramos a emiss?o de 3.811,94 tCO2eq. Conclu?mos que a aferi??o da Pegada de Carbono ? imprescind?vel para conhecimento das emiss?es reais causadas pela exist?ncia de um processo produtivo, devendo servir de base para a tomada de decis?es de RSE quanto ao desafio da revers?o das mudan?as clim?ticas