The new democratic government of Malawi introduced free primary education (FPE) in the 1994/95 academic year. This major policy intervention included the removal of tuition and other school fees, and children were no longer required to wear a uniform to attend school. The main objectives ofFPE were to increase access to primary education and to eliminate inequalities in participation through reducing the direct costs, and to improve retention rates and thus reduce illiteracy. FPE is the most significant educational policy ever introduced in Malawi. Its development invited a detailed study of how participation has changed, what mechanisms were employed to improve retention and promotion, and what strategies were used to meet the need for additional human and physical resources. There are four main concerns which shaped this study: 1) The genesis of the policy- how was the policy initiated and for what reasons? 2) The policy itself- i.e. what did the policy consist of and what did the ministry of education do? 3) What happened after the introduction of FPE and how did enrolment, access and retention change over time? 4) Why did things happen the way they did and what are the reasons which help explain the effect of implementing FPE? Data were collected through grounded case studies of ten schools undertaken in different parts of Malawi. The literature indicates that judgements on the effectiveness of policy implementation require insights that can only be obtained from case study work at the local level. Those involved in the development of policy were interviewed and national level data were also analysed. Systems theory was used to examine the relationships between system components, between the system and its environment and between one system and another, and the major concepts of this theory of interdependence, integration and cohesion were used to analyse and interpret the findings of this thesis. At the macro level, the study also drew on functionalist theory. In order to examine how educational institutions perceive, manipulate and act within the structural constraints within which they find themselves, the socio-politico-cultural frameworks within which, and through which these institutions have shaped schooling under FPE were elaborated. The analysis has shown that the immediate goal of ensuring universal access to primary education has been largely achieved. Most children in Malawi have set foot inside a school of some kind. But when the implementation of FPE policy was examined within the Jomtien aspirations which included improving educational quality, ensuring greater equity in the distribution of educational resources, and improving retention and attendance, the thesis concludes that Malawi lacks the administrative and fiscal capacity to deliver primary education of minimum quality to all. This deficiency leads to system fragmentation and low cohesion in the implementation process which partly explains the limitations of FPE policy identified. The study established that schooling problems might have worsened since the introduction of FPE and that despite increased efforts towards girls education, gender disparities still remain one of the main problems. Further, the rhetorical association of schooling with economic opportunity is questionable, at least for those where the demand for schooling is weak and the benefits not apparent. A simulation modelling costs also indicates that achieving EFA is financially unsustainable in the short and medium term. The findings provide pointers about what needs to be done or strengthened in order to ensure a more effective implementation of an ambitious and worthwhile educational policy reform in Malawi, as well as the lessons that can be learned for the implementation of similar reforms.

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Thesis (M.Ed.)--York University, 2007. Graduate Programme in Education. / Typescript. Includes bibliographical references (leaves164-170). Also available on the Internet. MODE OF ACCESS via web browser by entering the following URL: http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&res_dat=xri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:MR32014

D.Ed. / Please refer to full text to view abstract

Protection from violence, and access to formal education, are fundamental human rights for girls in conflict-affected societies. And yet, war exposes girls to an increased risk of exposure to violence, and serves as a well-known barrier to their involvement in school. While these risks are widely recognized within the fields of international education and humanitarian affairs, significant gaps exist within the peer-reviewed literature. Existing studies tend to focus generally on violence against girls in conflict-affected societies without accounting for issues of education. Or, studies focus exclusively on violence in and around school settings, although only investigate violence against students who are currently in school. As a result, the differential experiences with violence among girls based on varying levels of involvement (or lack thereof) in formal education are not well known. In light of these issues, this dissertation examines the relationship between girls’ level of participation in formal education, and exposure to violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), while accounting for Ecological factors (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) in girls’ lives, families, and communities. A quantitative survey was conducted with girls (ages 10-14) and caregivers across 14 sites in South Kivu. Findings suggest that higher levels of participation in formal education were associated with lower rates of violence among girls. Child marriage— itself considered a form of violence according to human rights norms— was seen to disrupt the protective relationship between education and violence, and expose married girls to higher rates of violence overall. Further, equitable gender norms on the part of girls and their caregivers emerged as significant factors contributing to girls’ involvement in higher levels of formal education. Taken cumulatively, findings from this research suggest a need to engage in Ecological interventions with girls, families, and communities in order to prevent the occurrence of violence and ensure that girls have access to formal education that is protective, of good quality, and promotes their overall development and well-being. In addition to filling vital gaps in the literature, these findings hold the potential to inform program and policy development not only in the DRC, but in conflict-affected societies more broadly.

The purpose of this study has been to examine what assistance potential mothers’ of the next generation suggest for girls, in order for all to be able to complete primary education. This has been investigated through asking 36 women age 18-25, what obstacles they see for socio- economically constrained girls. They have also been asked about how they think these obstacles can be altered for the next generation. The study method has been focus group interviews. When analysing the interview material Empowerment theory and the Salutogenic theory have been applied. The main solutions presented by the respondents is support in income generating activities for the poorest mothers and advocacy for girls’ education. The best way of supporting mothers would according to the respondents be for the Ethiopian Government to assist the poorest mothers to start and run businesses. Religious leaders are perceived to be the possible assistance provider in position to affect the public opinion making the whole society more willing to invest in girls’ educational chances.

This study explores the ways in which grade 10 girls experience violence within a single-sex high school setting in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. The focus of the study is on their accounts of witnessing violence amongst other girls in the school. The study shows that despite the view that single-sex schools are regarded as a safer option for many girls in South Africa, different forms of violence and aggression are reported by the girls in this study. Violence and aggression are not easily definable but the eye-witness accounts from the grade 10 girls in this study show how - in everyday relations - violence is gendered, raced and classed. Violence and aggression are also related to sexuality and the study shows how girls fight for boys. This study draws upon a qualitative methodological approach to identify the various forms of violence experienced within this setting. Through the process of analysing semi-structured interviews, this study has revealed that the single-sex environment for high school girls is a highly charged site of violence and aggression. Implications for understanding girls' violence, as well as recommendations to address such, conclude the study. / Thesis (M.Ed.) - University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2009.

Managing menstrual hygiene is a problem for many women around the world, especially in developing countries. The lack of access to sanitary products, clean water, knowledge and other necessary resources leads to taboos and health implications, as well as have negative impacts on girls’ education. This thesis investigates if this problem may be improved by the distribution of menstrual cups, by seeking to answer the two following questions; can the usage of the menstrual cup strengthen girls’ participation in education? And; can the usage of the menstrual cup have a positive impact on girls’ possibilities of engaging in social interactions during menstruations? In order to answer these questions, 15 recipients of menstrual cups in Tanzania have been interviewed. The thesis’ point of departure is within the capability approach, to understand if the girls’ capabilities within the spheres of health, education and social interactions have been strengthened or not. With this approach, the thesis can fully explore the girls’ well-being and opportunities, as the theory defines this as the opportunities they have, not only the ones they choose to pursue. The findings show that all interviewed recipients chose to continue to use their menstrual cups as they felt that it improved either their economy, health or gave them increased confidence in school as it lowered the risks of visible leakage. Nearly all girls felt less restricted in school and more able to participate in class, talk and play with classmates regardless of menstruating or not. Furthermore, the thesis concludes that the living conditions of the recipients may have affected the positive result, and that it cannot be ruled out that a similar result would have shown with any other sanitary product used correctly.

In Benin, women in general and rural women in particular are central to the development and sustenance of the household, community, and society at large. Yet, often, they lack the agency, as a result of limited education, life skills, and resources, to contribute to community development, or the structures in place (laws, religious beliefs, policies, and institutions) limit women’s ability to participate in community development. As a result of their limited agency and the unequal structures in society, women in Benin have often been denied participation in decisions around education, health, economy, and agriculture. While women are key actors in all these sectors, they are often not represented sufficiently in the discussions that shape their lives. Women in Benin have collectively organized into associations to address these issues. Associations such as Mothers Associations (MAs) in Benin, have emerged with the specific purpose of improving the education of their daughters. MAs function under the umbrella of Parent Associations (PAs) to address issues of particular concern to girl students. While PAs have helped to improve basic education by putting pressure on school administrators and political leaders to address the quality of schools, these associations have been primarily male dominated, rarely identifying the specific barriers to education for girls. My dissertation has three main objectives: to assess how MAs in Benin have collectively mobilized to enhance the quality of education for schoolgirls; to determine whether MA activities and mobilization efforts have led to women’s empowerment and influence within their respective communities; and to examine whether MAs have had an impact on changing harmful social norms. Overall, the objective of this research is to examine how members of the MAs have used their collective agency to enhance gender equality within the school and community life. Through a critical feminist approach and applying a socio-ecological model, I examine the process in which African women have mobilized, collaborated, and advocated for girls’ education in ways that subtly undermine the harmful relations of power that govern their position in society.

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