Människans ekonomiska intressen och aktiviteter i Afrika har haft en negativ påverkan på gorillorna som idag är utrotningshotade. Syftet med uppsatsen är att undersöka hur aktörers intressen både lett att gorillor är utrotningshotade samt hur arbetet med att bevara och skydda gorillorna ser ut. För att få svar på detta har en kvalitativ innehållsanalys applicerats på organisationers hemsidor och forsknings magasin och artiklar, där teman valdes ut både när det kommer till aktörers intressen och bevaringsarbetet som görs. De teoretiska begreppen miljö, makt och skala har applicerats på de identifierade teman använts för att få fram ett resultat. I uppsatsen kommer det fram att aktörer som bland annat länders regeringar och jägares ekonomiska intressen i gorillorna och deras habitat har varit en stor del i att gorillorna är utrotningshotade genom bland annat nedhuggning av skog och jakt, samtidigt hör alla hoten som presenteras i uppsatsen ihop och påverkar varandra på många olika sätt. När det kommer till bevaringsarbetet var ekoturismen den arbetsform som internationella organisationer lyfter fram. Denna form medför även nackdelar för både gorillorna samt lokalbefolkningarna vilket gör att denna arbetsform inte helt kan ses som en win-win situation i bevaringen av gorillorna.

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The research aims of this thesis are to investigate the attention cues available to and used by apes, especially gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), to ascertain the direction of conspecific attention during social interactions with a special reference to social play. Minimal research has been conducted on the role of attention cues - eye gaze, head, and body orientation - to regulate natural social interactions, such as social play, in non-human primates. This thesis begins with an investigation of the "cooperative eye hypothesis", which poses that humans have evolved a unique white sclera adaptation for advertising and detecting gaze direction. Chapter 2 reports the existence of a natural white sclera variation in a proportion of gorilla eyes - contradicting the widely held assumption that white sclera is an exclusively human characteristic - and analyzes the presence of white sclera in relation to other morphological changes in the human eye. The study concludes that the morphological elongation of the eye might be a more important and unique change than the white sclera coloration. Chapter 3 experimentally explores the contribution of white sclera in both great ape and human eye gaze to the perception of gaze direction detection by human observers. This chapter concludes that although white sclera contributes to the accuracy and speed of gaze direction detection (an assumption that this thesis has put to experimental test for the first time), this merely adds to the already efficient gaze cues available in the eye areas of the ape face. Chapter 4 investigates the role of eye gaze, head, and body orientations during gorilla social play behavior, and more specifically, introduces a novel analysis of "vigilance periods" (VPs), in which gorillas may use the interaction between attention cues to gauge the attention and intentions of play partners to successfully navigate play. The final study (Chapter 5) complements Chapter 4 and investigates the role of gorilla postures, behaviors, and movements during changes in attentional cue orientations. This chapter concludes that gorillas often engage in physical rest during VPs but maintain attentional engagement and can assemble and impart socially relevant information based on the behaviors, movements, and attention orientations of their partner. Together, these studies suggest that attention orientation is conveyed and assessed by gorillas through a variety of interacting cues to navigate and modify social play interactions.

Cette étude se place dans le contexte des maladies infectieuses émergentes maintenant reconnues comme une menace majeure de la biodiversité. Engendrant un taux de mortalité atteignant 95 %, les épidémies à virus Ebola ayant affecté les populations de gorilles de plaine de l'Ouest (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) conduisirent à la classification de ce taxon comme " En danger critique d'extinction ". Cette étude s'intéresse aux capacités de récupération de ses populations. Grâce à des données uniques d'observation en phase pré- et post-épidémique, nous avons évalué l'impact de l'épidémie sur la structure et la dynamique sociale d'une population et estimé son potentiel de récupération au cours des six ans qui ont suivi. Nos résultats de démographie et de dynamique, couplés à des approches statistique et de modélisation démographique détaillée au niveau des classes d'âge et de sexe, et intégrant l'immigration, nous ont permis de mettre en évidence 1) un impact délétère sur le potentiel reproducteur, du fait de l'organisation sociale du gorille ; 2) les atouts de la flexibilité et de l'organisation sociale dans la récupération de la structure de la population ; 3) le rôle de l'immigration pour la récupération à long-terme des effectifs. La mise en évidence de caractéristiques structurelles typiques d'une population affectée par Ebola nous a permis de montrer qu'une population voisine étudiée était indemne. Ceci met en évidence l'impact hétérogène des épidémies au niveau régional, induisant probablement un certain degré de fragmentation des populations. Ce nouvel élément permet de discuter les hypothèses d'émergence et de propagation du virus, et pose la question de l'impact de la fragmentation de la population sur sa dynamique globale et sur la récupération des populations locales affectées. Nos résultats suggèrent une faible résilience des populations de gorilles de plaine face à Ebola et la menace de ce virus pour la persistance des populations. Cependant, une meilleure connaissance du potentiel de flux d'individus au niveau régional et le développement de modèles démographiques prenant en compte cette dimension permettrait de mieux préciser cette résilience.

Femtosecond laser inscribed waveguides inside the bulk of materials have shown great relevance for the development of photonic optical circuits. Due to high intensity, long interaction length and strong light confinement, nonlinear optical effects are significant to pulse propagation within the waveguide. Therefore, it is important to search for new and better platforms to host photonic devices, as well as, to analyze its linear and nonlinear optical properties. In this dissertation, we have studied the inscription of nonlinear waveguides in Gorilla Glass (strengthened alkali aluminosilicate glass) and in L-threonine organic crystals. Initially, we studied the nonlinear refractive index of Gorilla Glass, demonstrating that it presents an approximately constant value of n2 = (3.3 ± 0.6) × 10-20 m2/W over the spectral region from 490 nm up to 1.5 µm. Single-mode waveguides written in Gorilla Glass presents propagation losses on the order of (0.35 ± 0.01) dB/mm, which is comparable to other waveguides inscribed in silicate glasses. In the nonlinear regime, the guided pulse presented spectral broadening, compatible with the measured n2 value, and white-light continuum generation. The generation of new frequencies is due to self-phase modulation and stimulated Raman scattering effects, both associated with third-order nonlinearities of Gorilla Glass. In a second part, we inscribed cladding waveguides in L-threonine organic crystal, in order to explore its second-order nonlinearities. After their linear characterization, that revealed propagation losses of (0.5 ± 0.1) dB/mm, we obtained guided second harmonic generation in the ultraviolet region. The written waveguide presented a normalized power conversion efficiency of (10.3 ± 0.4) % (MW cm2)-1 and approximately four times higher normalized intensity conversion efficiency than the crystal itself. Such enhancement effect was attributed to the influence of the waveguide dispersion in the phase-matching condition necessary for second harmonic generation. In general, the results presented here expand the knowledge on femtosecond laser writing of waveguide in organic and inorganic materials, and their nonlinear properties, which are relevant for developing photonic devices. / Guias de ondas fabricados com pulsos de femtossegundos no volume de materiais são de grande importância para o desenvolvimento de circuitos fotônicos. Devido as altas intensidades, longos comprimentos de interação e forte confinamento, efeitos ópticos não lineares são significativos durante a propagação de pulsos laser em guias de onda. Portanto, é importante buscar novas e melhores plataformas para construir os dispositivos fotônicos, bem como analisar suas propriedades ópticas lineares e não lineares de guiamento. Nesta tese, estudamos a fabricação de guias de onda não lineares em Gorilla Glass (vidro aluminossilicato alcalino) e no cristal orgânico de L-treonina. Inicialmente, estudamos o índice de refração não linear do Gorilla Glass, demonstrando que este apresenta um valor aproximadamente constante, n2 = (3.3 ± 0.6) × 10-20 m2/W, no intervalo espectral de 490 nm até 1,5 µm. Os guias monomodo produzidos no Gorilla Glassapresentaram perdas de transmissão da ordem de (0,35 ± 0,01) dB/mm, as quais são comparáveis às de outros guias em vidros silicatos já reportados. No regime não linear, o pulso guiado apresentou alargamento espectral compatível com o valor determinado para n2, e geração de luz branca. A geração de novas frequências observada se deve aos fenômenos de auto modulação de fase e espalhamento Raman estimulado, ambos associados à não linearidade de terceira ordem do Gorilla Glass. Numa segunda etapa, fabricamos guias de onda do tipo casca em cristais orgânicos de L-treonina, afim de explorar sua não linearidade de segunda ordem. Após sua caracterização linear, onde medimos uma perda de guiamento de (0,5 ± 0,1) dB/mm, fomos capazes de obter geração de segundo harmônico guiada, na região do ultravioleta. O guia fabricado apresentou uma eficiência normalizada de conversão de potência de (10.3 ± 0,4) % (MW cm2)-1 e eficiência normalizada de conversão de intensidade aproximadamente quatro vezes maior do que a do cristal em si. Tal aumento foi atribuído à influência da dispersão do guia no casamento de fase, necessário para geração de segundo harmônico. De maneira geral, os resultados apresentados aqui expandem o conhecimento de fabricação de guias de onda com laser de femtossegundos em materiais inorgânicos e orgânicos, bem como de suas propriedades não lineares relevantes para produção de dispositivos.

Femtosecond laser inscribed waveguides inside the bulk of materials have shown great relevance for the development of photonic optical circuits. Due to high intensity, long interaction length and strong light confinement, nonlinear optical effects are significant to pulse propagation within the waveguide. Therefore, it is important to search for new and better platforms to host photonic devices, as well as, to analyze its linear and nonlinear optical properties. In this dissertation, we have studied the inscription of nonlinear waveguides in Gorilla Glass (strengthened alkali aluminosilicate glass) and in L-threonine organic crystals. Initially, we studied the nonlinear refractive index of Gorilla Glass, demonstrating that it presents an approximately constant value of n2 = (3.3 ± 0.6) × 10-20 m2/W over the spectral region from 490 nm up to 1.5 µm. Single-mode waveguides written in Gorilla Glass presents propagation losses on the order of (0.35 ± 0.01) dB/mm, which is comparable to other waveguides inscribed in silicate glasses. In the nonlinear regime, the guided pulse presented spectral broadening, compatible with the measured n2 value, and white-light continuum generation. The generation of new frequencies is due to self-phase modulation and stimulated Raman scattering effects, both associated with third-order nonlinearities of Gorilla Glass. In a second part, we inscribed cladding waveguides in L-threonine organic crystal, in order to explore its second-order nonlinearities. After their linear characterization, that revealed propagation losses of (0.5 ± 0.1) dB/mm, we obtained guided second harmonic generation in the ultraviolet region. The written waveguide presented a normalized power conversion efficiency of (10.3 ± 0.4) % (MW cm2)-1 and approximately four times higher normalized intensity conversion efficiency than the crystal itself. Such enhancement effect was attributed to the influence of the waveguide dispersion in the phase-matching condition necessary for second harmonic generation. In general, the results presented here expand the knowledge on femtosecond laser writing of waveguide in organic and inorganic materials, and their nonlinear properties, which are relevant for developing photonic devices. / Guias de ondas fabricados com pulsos de femtossegundos no volume de materiais são de grande importância para o desenvolvimento de circuitos fotônicos. Devido as altas intensidades, longos comprimentos de interação e forte confinamento, efeitos ópticos não lineares são significativos durante a propagação de pulsos laser em guias de onda. Portanto, é importante buscar novas e melhores plataformas para construir os dispositivos fotônicos, bem como analisar suas propriedades ópticas lineares e não lineares de guiamento. Nesta tese, estudamos a fabricação de guias de onda não lineares em Gorilla Glass (vidro aluminossilicato alcalino) e no cristal orgânico de L-treonina. Inicialmente, estudamos o índice de refração não linear do Gorilla Glass, demonstrando que este apresenta um valor aproximadamente constante, n2 = (3.3 ± 0.6) × 10-20 m2/W, no intervalo espectral de 490 nm até 1,5 µm. Os guias monomodo produzidos no Gorilla Glassapresentaram perdas de transmissão da ordem de (0,35 ± 0,01) dB/mm, as quais são comparáveis às de outros guias em vidros silicatos já reportados. No regime não linear, o pulso guiado apresentou alargamento espectral compatível com o valor determinado para n2, e geração de luz branca. A geração de novas frequências observada se deve aos fenômenos de auto modulação de fase e espalhamento Raman estimulado, ambos associados à não linearidade de terceira ordem do Gorilla Glass. Numa segunda etapa, fabricamos guias de onda do tipo casca em cristais orgânicos de L-treonina, afim de explorar sua não linearidade de segunda ordem. Após sua caracterização linear, onde medimos uma perda de guiamento de (0,5 ± 0,1) dB/mm, fomos capazes de obter geração de segundo harmônico guiada, na região do ultravioleta. O guia fabricado apresentou uma eficiência normalizada de conversão de potência de (10.3 ± 0,4) % (MW cm2)-1 e eficiência normalizada de conversão de intensidade aproximadamente quatro vezes maior do que a do cristal em si. Tal aumento foi atribuído à influência da dispersão do guia no casamento de fase, necessário para geração de segundo harmônico. De maneira geral, os resultados apresentados aqui expandem o conhecimento de fabricação de guias de onda com laser de femtossegundos em materiais inorgânicos e orgânicos, bem como de suas propriedades não lineares relevantes para produção de dispositivos.

In my several months of research I have been engaged in studying the distribution of affiliated and agonistic behaviour in a group and primarily towards a new female, over the course of ranking the new female into the group and changes in the social arrangement of the western lowland gorillas in Prague Zoo. For the research standardised observational methods were used, ad libitum sampling, focal animal sampling and scan sampling and statistical analysis on data was carried out with the aid of ethological software (Noldus- MatMan 1.0). Hypotheses stated that the agonistic contact towards Bikire would be initiated by females and above all from the female Shinda, also affiliated contact for Bikire would be initiated by the young and under aged, that the frequency of agonistic contact towards Bikire will gradually decline, that the other adults in the group are dominant to Bikire, that will result in lower affiliated contact and that the social structure will change in the group. From the results of the research it is confirmed, that agonistic contact towards the new female was initiated exclusively by females and in particular the female Shinda. Further it was confirmed, the initiators of the affiliated contact towards Bikire are the young and under aged female member Moja. It was revealed the other...

Adipositas ist eine polymorphe chronische Erkrankung mit epidemischer Prävalenz. Im katabolen Leptin-Melanocortin-Signalweg ist das Proopiomelanocortin Gen (POMC) ein zentrales Element, das bei Dysfunktion massive Adipositas bewirken kann. Auch eine kürzlich identifizierte intragenische Methylierungsvariante des POMC wurde mit Adipositas assoziiert und deutet somit auf eine mögliche epigenetische Modulation des Gewichtsphänotyps hin. Zur Aufklärung der Relevanz, Stabilität und Entwicklung dieser epigenetischen Modifikation wurden die Funktionalität, Ontogenese und Phylogenese der POMC DNA-Methylierung untersucht. In vitro Analysen zeigten DNA-Methylierungsabhängige Promoteraktivität beider CpG-Inseln (CGIs) des POMC. Diese hier erstmals beschriebene Transkriptionsaktivität der intragenischen CGI weist auf einen alternativen Promoter des POMC hin. Hinsichtlich der Ontogenese konnten in Mensch und Maus postnatal stabile DNA-Methylierungsmuster mit interindividueller Konservierung für beide CGIs des POMC identifiziert werden. Zusätzlich erwiesen sich Gewebeunabhängigkeit der DNA-Methylierungsmuster und ihre pränatale Ausbildung zwischen dem Blastocystenstadium und der frühen Organogenese in der Maus. Die POMC DNA-Methylierungsmuster upstream des Exon3 unterscheiden sich in Mensch und Maus. Der mögliche Einfluss von primatenspezifischen Alu-Elementen im Intron2 des POMC hierauf wurde in verschiedenen Primatenfamilien analysiert. Die Ergebnisse zeigen eine bedingte Assoziation der Alu-Elemente mit der DNA-Methylierung in der entsprechenden Region, lassen jedoch auch weitere Einflussfaktoren vermuten. Insgesamt zeigt diese Arbeit, dass die POMC DNA-Methylierung artspezifisch konserviert ist und in der frühen Embryogenese, vermutlich Alu-abhängig, ausgebildet wird. Dabei könnten stochastische Variationen der DNA-Methylierung die POMC-Aktivität beeinflussen und somit das Risiko für Adipositas erhöhen. / Obesity is a polymorphic chronic disease with epidemic prevalence. Within the catabolic leptin-melanocortin signaling pathway pre-proopiomelanocortin (POMC) is a pivotal element. Dysfunction of POMC, e.g. due to mutations, can cause severe obesity. Moreover, a recently identified intragenic methylation variant of POMC was found to be associated with obesity. Therefore, this indicates potential epigenetic modulation of the weight phenotype. To gain further insight into the relevance, stability, and origin of this epigenetic modification, the functionality, ontogenesis, and phylogenesis of the POMC DNA methylation patterns were analyzed. In vitro analyses revealed DNA methylation-dependent promoter activity of both CpG islands (CGIs) of POMC. Thereby, the intragenic CGI was identified as a potential alternative promoter of POMC, which has not been described before. Regarding the ontogenesis, postnatally stable POMC DNA methylation patterns with interindividual conservation were detected for both CGIs in humans and mice. In addition, it was observed that the POMC DNA methylation patterns are non-tissue-specific, stable upon long time administration of a high fat diet, and develop prenatally between the blastocystal stage and the early organogenesis. The POMC DNA methylation pattern upstream of exon3 differs in humans and mice. A possible influence of primate-specific Alu elements within the intron2 region of POMC was analyzed in various primate families. Results evince a partial association of the Alu elements with the DNA methylation pattern in this particular region, but also suggest an influence of additional factors. Overall, this work demonstrates that DNA methylation of the POMC locus is species-specific highly conserved, and that it is established during early embryogenesis, possibly Alu-triggered. In the course of this, stochastic variances of the POMC DNA methylation might influence the POMC activity and consequently alter the risk to develop obesity.

Due to recent crop-raiding incidents an eight weeks field study to survey threats to endemic gorillas have been conducted in Okwangwo Division of Cross River National Park, Nigeria. The report ratifies that smaller mammals than gorillas are responsible for a majority of damage done to Okwangwo farm crops. Additionally the report identifies issues that need to be dealt with in order to secure regional gorilla protection; most acute is the necessity to relocate three villages that remains within the park, and inclusion of villages that are excluded from Support Zone status in the Bumaji area. Collected data expands previously established gorilla range; therefore valuations concerning gorilla habitat range with non-specific suggestions for restructure of park borders are submitted.

Esta investigación se basa en los problemas detectados en la reproducción y desarrollo de los grandes simios y específicamente en los gorilas de las poblaciones que se mantienen ex situ dentro del proyecto de conservación Europeo (EEP. EAZA), y la necesidad de investigar factores que puedan mejorar su éxito reproductivo y su desarrollo. Los sujetos del estudio son miembros de una mega población que ha vivido a lo largo de varias décadas, y en algunos casos aún vive, en cautividad y, por tanto, en unas condiciones que difieren bastante de las propias de la especie en su medio natural tanto en lo concerniente a su hábitat, condiciones sociales y condiciones demográficas. Uno de los problemas específicos detectados en las poblaciones de grandes simios proviene del considerable número de individuos criados por humanos que existe en la población histórica y actual, y que presentan deficiencias en la conducta materna, en las relaciones sociales, y en la reproducción (en su término más amplio, no el mero hecho del apareamiento). Es por ello que se revisan aspectos del proceso de socialización, y de las conductas sociales haciendo una especial incidencia en los factores que influyen en la conducta materna, así como en los factores que pueden favorecer la reproducción en adultos que en fases iniciales de su desarrollo no tuvieron la oportunidad de socializarse de forma adecuada a la especie. Los estudios realizados se basan en el resultado de cuestionarios, observaciones cualitativas de ciertas conductas sociales y datos demográficos y específicos obtenidos del Studbook Europeo de Gorilas. Los resultados amplian el conocimiento sobre la adquisición de conductas sociales en los grandes simios en general, y en los gorilas en particular, y contribuyen a la mejora en la gestión de los programas de conservación ex situ. La investigación permitió identificar aquellos factores que favorecen un perfil maternal adecuado en las hembras de gorila cautivas, y por extensión en otras especies de grandes simios, poniendo de manifiesto los factores que afectan al desarrollo social de los gorilas criados por humanos y determinando cuáles son las circunstancias necesarias para realizar la introducción temprana de dichos individuos en un grupo de coespecíficos, de modo que su perfil social sea satisfactorio y puedan ser introducidos sin dificultad en otros grupos de coespecíficos al alcanzar la madurez sexual. Asimismo, se comprobaron los resultados reproductivos de la población de los individuos criados por humanos, y por tanto su contribución a la población total, y se determinaron circunstancias que podían favorecer su reproducción al alcanzar la madurez sexual. / Incidental factors in the reproduction and development of primates in captivity: Western gorillas " ex-situ " conservation (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) Authoress: Ma. Teresa Abelló Poveda Director(Principal) of the Thesis: Dra. Montserrat Colell Mimó TEXT: This research is based on the problems detected in the reproduction and development of great apes and specifically on the ex situ gorilla population (EEP. EAZA), and the need to investigate factors that could improve their breeding success and their development. The subjects of this study are members of a gentle population who has lived throughout several decades, and in some cases still it lives, in captivity and, therefore, under conditions that defer enough from their natural ones in the wild regarding habitat and social life. One of the specific problems detected in the great apes population comes from the considerable number of individuals hand-raised (by human beings) that exists in the historical and current population, and that present some deficiencies in their maternal behaviour, in their social relations, and in their breeding results. For that reason different aspects of the socialization process and social behaviour are analyzed on hand-reared animals, with special incidence on the factors that have some influence on maternal behavior and a successful breeding of individuals when reaching their sexual maturity. The different studies presented are based on the result from surveys (quantitative data), qualitative observations of social behaviour and specific demographic data obtained from the Gorilla European Studbook. The results give a better knowledge a on the acquisition of socila skills on great apes, and more specifically on gorillas, and it is worth to improve exsitu conservation (management/breeding) programmes This research allowed allowed to identify those factors that favor a good maternal profile in captive gorilla females, and for extension in other species of great apes. Revealing some factors of concern for the social development of hand-reared gorillas and determining which are the necessary circumstances to realize the early introduction of the above mentioned individuals in a group of coespecíficos, so that their develop with a adequate social profile and can be introduced without difficulty in other groups of coespecíficos