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Turbulent structures are known to be important physical processes in gravel-bed rivers. A number of limitations exist that prohibit the advancement and prediction of turbulence structures for optimization of civil infrastructure, biological habitats and sediment transport in gravel-bed rivers. This includes measurement limitations that prohibit characterization of size and strength of turbulent structures in the riverine environment for different case studies as well as traditional numerical modeling limitations that prohibit modeling and prediction of turbulent structure for heterogeneous beds under high Reynolds number flows using the Navier-Stokes equations. While these limitations exist, researchers have developed various theories for the structure of turbulence in boundary layer flows including large eddies in gravel-bed rivers. While these theories have varied in details and applicable conditions, a common hypothesis has been a structural organization in the fluid which links eddies formed at the wall to coherent turbulent structures such as large eddies which may be observed vertically across the entire flow depth in an open channel. Recently physics has also seen the advancement of topological fluid mechanical ideas concerned with the study of vortex structures, braids, links and knots in velocity vector fields. In the present study the structural organization hypothesis is investigated with topological fluid mechanics and experimental results which are used to derive a vortex model for gravel-bed flows. Velocity field measurements in gravel-bed flow conditions in the laboratory were used to characterize temporal and spatial structures which may be attributed to vortex motions and reconnection phenomena. Turbulent velocity time series data were measured with ADV and decomposed using statistical decompositions to measure turbulent length scales. PIV was used to measure spatial velocity vector fields which were decomposed with filtering techniques for flow visualization. Under the specific conditions of a turbulent burst the fluid domain is organized as a braided flow of vortices connected by prime knot patterns of thin-cored flux tubes embedded on an abstract vortex surface itself having topology of a Klein bottle. This model explains observed streamline patterns in the vicinity of a strong turbulent burst in a gravel-bed river as a coherent structure in the turbulent velocity field.

Signal crayfish are an internationally widespread invasive species that can have important detrimental ecological impacts. This thesis aims to determine whether signal crayfish have the potential to also impact the physical environment in rivers. A series of experiments were undertaken in purpose-built still-water aquaria using a laser scanner to obtain Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) of narrowly-graded gravel surfaces before and after exposure to crayfish. The difference between DEMs was used to quantify volumetric changes in surface topography due to crayfish activity. Two distinct types of topographic change were identified. The first was the construction of pits and mounds which resulted in an increase in surface roughness and grain exposure. The second was the rearrangement of surface material caused by crayfish brushing past grains when walking and foraging, reorientating grains and altering friction angles. A series of 80 flume runs were undertaken to quantify alterations made by crayfish to water-worked, as well as loose, gravel substrates at low velocity flows. Crayfish significantly altered the structure of water-worked substrates, reversing the imbrication of surface grains to a more random arrangement. Surfaces were entrained at a relatively high velocity flow subsequent to crayfish activity in order to directly link topographic and structural alterations to substrate stability. Nearly twice as many grains were mobilised from surfaces which had been disturbed by crayfish in comparison to control surfaces that were not exposed to crayfish. A field investigation aimed to determine the potential significance of the geomorphic impact of crayfish in rivers. Signal crayfish were tracked through a 20 m reach of a small, lowland alluvial river for 150 days using a Passive Integrated Transponder (PIT) system. Crayfish were active throughout the channel, although their activity became limited as water temperature dropped and flow stage increased. Substrate was not an important determinant of crayfish activity at this scale. Instead, crayfish tended to be found along the inner bank of a meander bend where there was a substantial cover of macrophytes. Consequently, signal crayfish were active for extended periods on substrates of a similar size to those that they could disturb in flume experiments. These results suggest that signal crayfish could have important geomorphic effects in rivers, disturbing bed structures and increasing the mobility of coarse material. This may have important implications for both the management of some rivers and benthic organisms that reside on the river bed.

Gravel bed braided rivers are distinctive natural environments that provide a wide range of key environmental, economic and recreational services. There is, however, a growing concern that over the twentieth century, an increasing number of braided rivers have metamorphosed into wandering or single thread channels, representing a loss of key habitats, geodiversity and amenity. While in some situations, shifts in channel pattern may be unambiguously linked to abrupt changes in flow or sediment supply, the lack of a theoretical basis underpinning the development and maintenance of braiding makes identification of the cause and effect of channel metamorphosis hazardous. A growing body of research has suggested that the transition between channel patterns may depend on the poorly understood interaction between the flow regime, sediment supply and vegetation colonisation. Such interactions are governed by critical thresholds, due to changes in flow resistance and bank strength associated with the distribution, form and intensity of vegetation colonisation. Subtle changes in flow or sediment supply that promote vegetation growth or indeed remove it through inundation or attrition. This can lead to complex non-linear shifts in the balance of forces that govern sediment transport and bedform morphodynamics, ultimately resulting in one-way changes in channel morphology. There is, therefore, a critical need to develop a quantitative understanding of these feedbacks in order to design sustainable river management programmes that seek to optimize the ecological and socio-economic benefits these rivers offer. During the last three decades, significant advances in the understanding of the morphodynamics of braided rivers have been made through a combination of field and physical experimentation. More recently, the emerging field of numerical modelling has created a new avenue to investigate the processes that govern channel dynamics. While this methodology offers significant promise through the construction of virtual experiments that examine the spectrum of drivers and responses of river systems, such models require careful and critical evaluation before they can be used to guide management practice. The wider goal of this research is to explore the application of a numerical modelling to investigate the feedbacks associated with the development and maintenance of braiding. Specifically, the state-of-the-art numerical model, BASEMENT, was used to examine channel responses to steady, and unsteady flow regimes, with and without the representation of vegetation. The research focuses on four main contributions: 1. The development of a systematic framework to quantify the evolving form and processes of braided rivers that can be used as part of a comprehensive approach to model validation. 2. Simulation of braiding development and maintenance using BASEMENT under steady flow conditions. Model simulations based on the natural prototype of the braided River Feshie were used to examine the sensitivity of emergent channel morphologies to the model parameterisation, focusing in particular on the representation of bank erosion and gravity-driven sediment transport. A novel multi6metric framework for model validation is presented and the results demonstrate the critical importance of lateral bank migration processes in order to maintain braided morphologies under steady flow. 3. A critical evaluation of the simulation of braiding under different form of steady and unsteady flow regimes is presented. These experiments investigate how the morphodynamics of braiding vary under energetically-normalised flow regimes characterized by differences in hydrograph form (peak discharge and duration). This experiment provides a novel insight into the role of flow variation in the maintenance of braiding. 4. Finally, the feedback between flow regimes, sediment transport and vegetation growth are examined using a novel model of vegetation colonisation and die- back. Four scenarios are presented, a no-vegetation model, one based on low growth rate, one based on an intermediate growth rate, and finally a high growth rate parameterisation. These simulations provide a clear insight into the non-linear processes driving channel evolution and demonstrate how subtle changes in the balance between flow frequency and vegetation growth can lead to divergent channel patterns. In summary, this thesis aims to advance our understanding of the morphodynamics of braided rivers and the role numerical models may have in helping to interrogate their behaviour and governing controls. It is hoped that this work may contribute, albeit in a small way, to advancing the science that promotes the sustainability of these fascinating and valuable environments.

Braided channels arise due to high sediment availability in conjunction with regular competent flows and readily erodible banks. Together, these boundary conditions lead to the deposition and reworking of a network of transient bars that characterize the braided planform. However, quantifying the geomorphic response of braided systems to alterations in these boundary conditions is not straightforward, as channels adjust over a wide range of timescales, rendering traditional field-based observation intractable. As such, the development of simple yet robust relationships between channel morphology and sediment transport has the potential to allow predictions of channel response to altered hydrologic or sediment regimes. In this research, I first use laboratory flume experiments to relate particle travel distance during floods (termed particle path length) and the spacing of channel bars in braided rivers (Chapter 2), finding that deposition sites for sediment in transport can be readily predicted by the characteristic confluence-diffluence spacing in a reach. I then use the relationship between path length and channel morphology to build a simple, open-source morphodynamic model for braided rivers that computes sediment transport using path-length distributions derived from bar spacing (Chapter 3). I explore the validity of this model, specifically noting that its modular framework allows exploration of process representations in morphodynamic modeling in ways existing models do not. Finally, I employ the model to determine the role of sediment supply in braided channel bar morphodynamics (Chapter 4). Specifically, I address the relative roles of sediment sourced from upstream versus sediment sourced from within a braided reach in terms of channel morphodynamics at decadal timescales. This research demonstrates that simple scaling relationships, while necessarily imperfect, nevertheless provide insight into morphodynamic processes in braided rivers, while also allowing predictions of channel response to sediment or hydrologic forcing at the timescales of channel adjustment.

A gravel-bed stream's grain size distribution plays an important role in determining a river's depth, sediment transport rates, and stream bed stability as well as the survival rates of mussels and salmonids. Unfortunately, the material found in gravel-bed rivers exhibits vertical stratification as well as spatial variation in the horizontal direction and is difficult to sample. Previous research has largely dealt with the ability of grid, areal, and bulk sampling techniques to sample a single spot within a river. Little has been done in characterizing an entire river reach. Of the methods suggested, none is adequate because they are either inherently biased or are incapable of describing the spatial variations within a sampled region. The present research proposes a method that overcomes these problems. It shows that a single large grid sample, or composite grid sample, can be used to obtain an unbiased estimate of an area's overall grain size distribution at a known accuracy level. It then suggests that the arithmetic mean is a suitable parameter to characterize the coarseness of individual sediment deposits within a sampled area. Thus, by recording the size and location of each stone taken in the composite grid sample one can use statistical hypothesis testing to systematically analyze local means throughout the sampled area and locate sediment boundaries. Once the boundaries are located, stones from the composite grid sample falling within the boundaries of a particular deposit can be analyzed as separate grid samples representative of the individual deposits present and describe the local variability. / Master of Science

L'analyse des variations spatio-temporelles du charriage est un élément important pour la compréhension de la dynamique fluviale. Ce manuscrit présente les recherches réalisées sur le développement d'une méthode de mesure du transport solide par acoustique passive. Un capteur de pression acoustique est utilisé pour mesurer le bruit généré par le transport par charriage au fond du lit de la rivière. Cette méthode originale a fait l'objet de quelques explorations durant les dernières décennies, qui ont montré que la puissance et le contenu fréquentiel du son généré dépendaient de la granulométrie des matériaux et du flux solide. Mais les applications au milieu naturel sont restées très limitées ; elles sont donc au centre de cette recherche.La première difficulté de la mesure est liée à l'existence de bruit environnant qui se superpose au bruit du charriage. Des mesures acoustiques ont été réalisées dans différentes typologie de rivières, du torrent à la grande rivière navigable. A l'aide de ces différentes expériences et de la bibliographie, les éléments du paysage acoustique d'une rivière sont identifiés. Le paysage acoustique d'une rivière est composé par les processus hydrodynamiques que sont la turbulence, l'agitation de surface et le transport de sédiment par charriage. Le charriage produit des bruits larges bandes, dans la partie haute du spectre et peut être masqué par les bruits de surface dans la région du kilohertz. Des outils de traitement du signal sont proposés afin de repérer les différentes dynamiques contenues dans le signal acoustique mesuré.L'interprétation du signal ne peut être faite sans une bonne compréhension des phénomènes de propagation des ondes acoustiques dans la rivière. On montre que la rivière se comporte comme un guide d'onde et une résolution de l'équation d'onde par une approche modale est proposée. On comprend alors que la propagation des ondes acoustiques est limitée par une fréquence de coupure inversement proportionnelle à la hauteur d'eau. Les observations de terrain faites sur la variation du champ de pression acoustique dans la verticale sont bien reproduites par le modèle d'un guide d'onde de Pekeris. Le modèle est alors utilisé pour montrer l'importance de la profondeur, de la constitution du fond de la rivière ou encore de la géométrie du canal sur la constitution du signal.Finalement, trois chroniques de signaux acoustiques enregistrés dans des rivières différentes sont analysées. Un descripteur est proposé pour chaque chronique de signaux, en fonction des bruits ambiants présents dans l'environnement lors de la mesure. Ce descripteur acoustique est confronté à des mesures comparatives du charriage et de bonnes corrélations sont observée. Elles montrent que la mesure hydrophone permet d'identifier la phase de l'initiation du transport par charriage et qu'elle est intégrative du transport sur une surface importante de la rivière. Ces expériences confirment la simplicité de mise en œuvre de la méthode et précisent les limites d'utilisation de l'acoustique passive, particulièrement pour les rivières à fortes pentes. Elles confirment également la validité des méthodes d'analyse du signal qui ont été utilisées et le besoin de mesures comparatives du milieu pour interpréter le signal. / Analysing the spatio-temporal variability of solid transport processes is key to the study of fluvial morphodynamics. Our research focusses on the development of passive acoustics to monitor bedload transport. A hydrophone is used to sense the acoustic pressure in the river in order to record the sound generated by inter-particle collisions. This original method has been mostly developed in laboratories during the past decades. It has been shown that the acoustic power and the frequencies of the monitored signals are linked to bedload fluxes and granulometry. The use of passive acoustics in natural streams has encountered limited success. It is the core of our research.First we address the existence of multiple sound sources in the environment. Acoustic measurements have been realised in several types of rivers: steep channels and large gravel bed rivers. These multiple experiences along with the bibliography have allowed us to describe river soundscapes. Hydrodynamics govern the soundscape, namely turbulence, agitating surfaces, and bedload transport. Inter-particle collisions generate sound in a wide range of frequencies, which depend on their sizes. It can be masked by the occurrence of agitating surface noise in the kilohertz region. Signal processing tools are proposed to study the dynamics of the different processes composing the signal.Signal interpretation could only be achieved by understanding the propagation properties of the acoustic waves in the river. It is shown that the river acts as an acoustic wave guide. A modal approach is suggested to solve the wave equation. The model points to the existence of a cutoff frequency inversely proportional to the water depth. Observations made on the vertical variation of the field pressure are correctly simulated. The signal dependence on water depth, the structure of the bed, and the geometry of the channel are studied using this model.Finally, we analyze three chronicles of acoustic signals recorded in the field. A signal descriptor is constructed for each data set, depending on the ambient noise conditions. This descriptor is compared to other measurements of bedload transport and good correlations are found. Initiation of motion is monitored and the integrative aspect of the acoustic measure is shown. These experiences highlight the simplicity of the method and show some of its limits. It is also shown that measurements of other environmental parameters are needed to interpret the results.

Fine-grained sediment accumulation in the interstices of gravel beds is a key factor in degrading riverine habitats. However, interstitial deposits are highly dynamic and are not sufficiently understood. This work enhances the understanding of interstitial fine sediment deposition by investigating interstitial storage and ingress, flow, suspended sediment and gravel bed character. Furthermore, this work introduces a numerical suspended sediment deposition model with the power to predict patterns of interstitial ingress. The investigation of interstitial deposition were carried out on two levels. Both data orginating from flume experiments and from three locations of the River Culm, Devon, UK was collected. The experimental data showed the significant influence of small scale variations in flow and bed character and their influence on interstitial ingress. The field investigation showed clear differences in interstitial fine-grained sediment for the different river reaches and an overall higher interstitial ingress compared to recent published data. The numerical model development was realised in a two-step approach. First, the model was coded and calibrated for the flume scale processes and, second, an upscaled reach scale model was devolped for the field data. This reach scale suspended sediment deposition model included flow information, for which depthaveraged two dimensional hydrodynamic models were developed with the software Delft3D. The overall explanatory power of the model at this state is not satisfactory with regards to local deposition distribution. A separate chapter discusses the possible causes and implications of this short coming for further research from a data aquisition and modelling perspective.

Expériences de terrain et de laboratoire montrent que les rivières à gravier avec étendue granulométrique élevée et faible contrainte latérale, comme dans le cas des rivières à chenaux multiples, notamment les rivières en tresses, et des rivières à chenal unique avec une pleine mobilité latérale, comme les rivières à méandres, peuvent présenter simultanément variations du chenal actif à la fois dans le plan et dans la direction verticale, ainsi qu’un tri granulométrique planimétrique et vertical. En fait, les ajustements du chenal présentent une interaction complexe avec les processus de tri granulométrique: processus de transport et dépôt des mélanges de sédiments hétérogènes engendrent la formations de plusieurs motifs de tri, parmi lesquels patches qui migrent dans le chenal, notamment les sorting waves également connues sous le nom de bedload sheets. Ces sorting waves sont observées comme l’alternance des bandes de sédiments grossiers et fins dans la direction d’écoulement. Cette thèse de doctorat étudie les processus de tri granulométrique d’une distribution granulométrique bimodale à la fois dans la direction latérale et verticale avec un accent particulier sur l’étude des bedload sheets. Ce projet vise également à étudier les effets du confinement latéral sur la morphodynamique du lit de la rivière et en particulier sur les processus de tri granulométrique; et en plus, vu que le tri granulométrique joue un rôle crucial en influant sur le profil en long de la rivière, ainsi que les motifs sédimentaires et le formes du lit, étant donné le lien étroit entre la topographie du lit et la composition sédimentaire, pente, largeur du chenal actif et taux de transport des sédiments. L’analyse de ces paramètres permet de définir des feedbacks entre les variables morphologiques. Les résultats de cette étude éclairent le rôle de la contrainte latérale sur les processus de tri granulométrique et la morphodynamique du lit nu des rivières. / Field and laboratory investigations indicate that gravel bed rivers with poorly-sorted grain size distribution and low lateral confinement, such as in the case of multi-thread, braided and transitional rivers but also wandering single-thread rivers, can simultaneously present active channel variations, both in the planimetric and altimetric directions, together with planimetric and vertical sorting.Actually channel adjustments present a complex interaction with sorting processes. transport and depositional processes of heterogeneous sediment mixtures induce the formation of various sorting patterns, among which free migrating patches such as sorting waves also known as bedload sheets. Such sorting waves are mainly observed by the alternation of bands of finer and coarser material in the streamwise direction.This PhD research investigates the sorting processes of a bimodal grain size distribution both in the lateral and in the vertical direction, with particular focus on the study of bedload sheets.The main aim of this work is to investigate the effects of lateral confinement on river bed morphodynamics and in particular on grain sorting processes; and besides, given that grain sorting plays a crucial role in affecting longitudinal river profile, as well as sediment patterns and bed forms, being indeed the connection between bed topography and bed sediment composition close, we would like to provide simple theoretical analyses and tools able to predict morphodynamic bed river variations driven by sortingDifferent methodologies are applied to successfully achieve this purpose.Firstly, a deep investigation of the state of knowledge of mixed-size sediment morphodynamics, sorting processes, sorted sediment patterns and bedload sheets is carried out.Then, a 1D linear stability analysis of a uniform flow above an erodible bed composed by a bimodal mixture of sediments is performed and investigation of the associated eigenvectors, amplitude of perturbations and migrations rate is discussed. Results are presented in terms of arising instabilities dominated by sorting. Although the monodimensional shallow-water framework, the simple flow model adopted allows for the formulation of an algebraic eigenvalue problem that can be solved analytically, allowing for a deep insight into the mechanisms that drive instabilities.Then, small scale flume experiments are carried out by reproducing three different flow confinement configurations and involving a bimodal mixture of natural sediments. All the configurations show large fluctuations of parameters characterising bed system in terms of bed sediment composition, slope, active channel width and sediment transport rate. The analysis of such parameters allows defining feedbacks among morphological variables. Results of such investigations shed light on the role of lateral confinement on sorting processes and morphodynamics of barebed rivers.

L'objectif ultime en géomorphologie fluviale est d'expliquer les formes des cours d'eau et leur évolution temporelle et spatiale. La multiplication des études nous a mené à la réalisation que les systèmes géomorphologiques sont complexes. Les formes observées sont plus que la somme des processus individuels qui les régissent en raison d’interactions et de rétroactions non-linéaires à de multiples échelles spatiales et temporelles. Dans ce contexte, le but général de la thèse est de proposer et de tester de nouvelles avenues de recherche afin de mieux appréhender la complexité des dynamiques fluviales en utilisant des approches méthodologiques et analytiques mettant l’accent sur les interactions entre l’écoulement, le transport de sédiments en charge fond et la morphologie du lit en rivière graveleuse. Cette orientation découle du constat que les paradigmes actuels en géomorphologie fluviale n’arrivent pas à expliquer adéquatement la variabilité naturelle du transport en charge de fond ainsi que des formes du lit qui en résultent. Cinq pistes de réflexion sont développées sous forme d’articles basés sur des études de cas : 1. L'intégration des échelles de variation de l'écoulement permet d’insérer la notion de structures turbulentes dans des pulsations de plus grande échelle et d'améliorer la compréhension de la variabilité du transport de sédiments. 2. La quantification des taux de changement de l’écoulement (accélération /décélération) au cours d’une crue permet d’expliquer la variabilité des flux de transport en charge fond autant que la magnitude de l’écoulement. 3. L’utilisation de techniques de mesures complémentaires révèle une nouvelle dynamique du lit des rivières graveleuses, la dilatation et la contraction du lit suite à une crue. 4. La remise en cause du fait généralement accepté que le transport en charge de fond est corrélé positivement à l'intensité des modifications morphologiques en raison d’un problème associé aux échelles différentes des processus en cause. 5. L’approche systémique des dynamiques fluviales par l’utilisation d’analyses multivariées permet d’appréhender la complexité des dynamiques de rétroactions linéaires et non-linéaires dans l’évolution d’un chenal et d’illustrer l’importance de l’historique récent des changements géomorphologiques en réponse aux crues. Cette thèse se veut une avancée conceptuelle issue d'une profonde réflexion sur les approches classiques que l'on utilise en géomorphologie fluviale depuis plusieurs décennies. Elle est basée sur un jeu de données unique récolté lors du suivi intensif de 21 évènements de crue dans un petit cours d’eau à lit de graviers, le ruisseau Béard (Québec). Le protocole expérimental axé sur la simultanéité des mesures de l’écoulement, de la morphologie du lit et du transport de sédiments en charge de fond a permis de centrer la recherche directement sur les interactions entre les processus plutôt que sur les processus individuels, une approche rarement utilisée en géomorphologie fluviale. Chacun des chapitres illustre un nouveau concept ou une nouvelle approche permettant de résoudre certaines des impasses rencontrées actuellement en géomorphologie fluviale. Ces travaux ont des implications importantes pour la compréhension de la dynamique des lits de rivières et des habitats fluviaux et servent de point de départ pour de nouveaux développements. / The overarching objective in fluvial geomorphology is to explain river morphology and its temporal and spatial evolution. The multiplication of studies led to the realization that geomorphic systems are complex and difficult to understand. The observed river morphology is more than the sum of the individual processes which govern them because of the superimposition of process interactions and non-linear feedback loops at multiple scales. In this context, the goal of this thesis is to explore new avenues of research in order to comprehend more accurately the complexity of gravel-bed river dynamics by using methodological and analytical approaches focusing on the interactions between the flow, transport of sediments as bedload and the bed morphology. This orientation of the thesis is in line with the fact that current paradigms in fluvial geomorphology have not succeeded in explaining adequately the natural variability of the sediment transport and its consequences on the river bedforms. Five avenues are developed in the form of articles based on case studies: 1. The study of the scales of variation of the flow allows us to integrate the turbulent flow structures into flow pulsations at larger scales and to potentially improve our understanding comprehension of bedload sediment transport variability. 2. The quantification of the rates of change of the flow magnitude (acceleration /deceleration) during a flood explains as much the variability of bedload transport fluxes as the flow intensity itself. 3. The use of complementary measurement techniques of bedload processes can reveal new river bed dynamics in gravel-bed rivers: the dilation and contraction of the bed resulting from a flood. 4. The investigation of the generally accepted fact that bedload sediment transport is correlated with the intensity of the morphological changes reveals that the two processes do not relate directly due to their different characteristic scales. 5. The systemic approach of river dynamics based on the use of multivariate analytical techniques is better suited for the study of complex linear and non-linear interactions and feedbacks in the evolution of a river channel. This analysis has shown the importance of the recent history of the morphological changes in response to a flood. The conceptual orientation of this thesis results from a deep reflection on the traditional approaches previously used for several decades in fluvial geomorphology. It is based on a single very extensive data set collected during 21 flood events in a small gravel-bed river, Béard creek (Quebec). The experimental protocol aimed at the simultaneity of processes measurements in order to focus the analysis on the interactions between the flow, the channel morphology and the bedload sediment transport rather than on the individual processes, an approach seldom used in fluvial geomorphology. Each chapter reports on a new concept or a new approach making it possible to resolve some of the issues met in fluvial geomorphology. This work has important implications for the understanding of river bed dynamics and fluvial habitats and is a starting point for new developments.