This doctoral thesis contains three essays on the economics of climate change and the electricity sector. The first essay deals with the subject of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and economic growth. The second essay addresses the issues of climate change policies, especially the role of the emergent innovative technologies, and the restructuring of the electricity sector. The third essay presents a model of transmission investments in electric power networks. Chapter One studies the impacts of climate change on economic growth in the world economies. The paper contains explicit formalization of the depletion process of exhaustible fossil fuels and the phase of technology substitution. The impacts of climate change on capital flows and welfare across countries are also investigated. The restructuring of the electricity sector is studied in Chapter Two. It also analyzes how climate change policies can benefit from emergent innovative technologies and how emergent innovative technologies can lower GHG emissions. It is shown that the price of electricity is strictly rising before emergent innovative firms with zero GHG emissions enter the market, but strictly declining as the entry begins. In Chapter Three, a model of electricity transmission investments from the perspective of the regulatory approach is formulated. The Mid-West region of Western Australia, a sub-system of the South West Interconnected System is considered. In contrast with most models in the literature that deal only with network deepening, this model deals with both network deepening and network widening. Moreover, unlike the conventional investment models which are static and deal only with the long run, this model is dynamic and focuses on the timing of the infrastructure investments. The paper is a study of an optimal transmission investment program which is part of the optimal investment program for an integrated model in which investments in transmission and investments in generation are made at the same time.

The underlying objective of this thesis was to perform GHG simulation studies to predict the dispersion and transport of greenhouse gases emitted from a thermal power plant in order to assess the extent of dangerous living environment for those surrounding it in case of an unforeseen calamity. The research carried out during this thesis was to investigate the method of wind averaging techniques to analyse column measurements (XCO2). The reason for adopting this method of analysis was to correlate the physical aspect of wind data to average over a certain period of time wherein the amount of XCO2 (in ppm) observed displays values greater than the background concentration. CFD simulations were performed using the open source code, OpenFOAM, and steady RANS models modified with turbulence boundary conditions for the urban environment case with previously validated simulation studies carried out for the same region in Munich, Germany. Initial results performed during the testing stage indicated that maximum average XCO2 value (in ppm) was recorded at the lowest value of mean wind speed and at a more downwind location of the measurement site. The results obtained from simulation studies on comparison with experimental values (arithmetic average) also suggest that for the same time interval, the difference in values for similar wind conditions as mentioned before makes this technique a more favourable choice for comparison and verification at another time instant.  There have been recent developments in GHG simulation based studies and however the current method does represent certain drawbacks, an insight into performing averaging analysis at time intervals representing peak XCO2 moments could be demonstrated which can also help in reducing the overall number of simulations as well as provide information with respect to mitigation measures based on transport and diffusion behavior.

The management and delivery of water and wastewater consume significant amounts of energy, mostly in the form of electricity. With increasing populations, climate change, water quality issues and increasing energy prices, it is more important than ever to understand energy consumption patterns. Energy usually represents the largest operational cost in water utilities around the world, yet there is limited work aiming to quantify the specific relationship between water and its associated energy, and understand its implications for future decision-making. This thesis presents variousmethodological approachesto quantify and understand energy use in water infrastructure systems, as well as how to incorporate them in decision-making processes. The main hypotheses are as follows: firstly, a detailed understanding of the use of energy in water infrastructure systems can facilitate more efficient and sustainable water infrastructure systems and, secondly, that incorporating energy into planning for water and wastewater resources can help understand the impacts of decisions and establish trade-offs between actions. To test these hypotheses, the thesis presents an analytical approach to various areas. Firstly, it identifies, maps and quantifies the energy consumption patterns within a water infrastructure system. This is then used to identify inefficiencies and areas of potential energy saving. Secondly, it incorporates detailed energy costs into short and long-term water resources management and planning. Thirdly, it evaluates trade-offs between energy costs and changing effluent quality regulations in wastewater resources. The Thames River basin, in the south-east of England, is used as a case study to illustrate the approach. The results demonstrate that a systematic approach to the quantification of energy use in a water infrastructure system can identify areas of inefficiencies that can be used to make decisions with regards to infrastructure planning. For example, water systems have significant geo-spatial variations in energy consumption patterns that can be addressed specifically to reduce negative trade-offs. The results also show that incorporating detailed energy information into long-term water resources planning can alter the choices made in water supply options, by providing more complete information. Furthermore, methodologically, they show how several methodological approaches can be used to support more complete decision-making in water utilities to reduce short and long-term costs. In this particular case study, the results show that there are important differences in energy consumption by region, and significant differences in the seasonal and energy patterns of water infrastructure systems. For example, water treatment was shown to be the largest consumer of energy within the whole system, compared with pumping or wastewater treatment; but wastewater treatment energy consumption was shown to be the fastest growing over time due to changes in water quality regulatory frameworks. The results show that more stringent effluent standards could result in at least a doubling of electricity consumption and an increase of between 1.29 and 2.30 additional million tonnes of CO2 a year from treating wastewater in large works in the UK. These are projected to continue to increase if the decarbonisation of the electricity grid does not occur fast enough. Finally, the thesis also shows that daily energy consumption can be reduced by up to 18% by optimally routing water through a water network. optimization of water networks, and that a change in discount rates could change the daily operating costs by 19%, that in turn leads to a resulting different set of optimal investment options in a water supply network.

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Agradecemos a compreensão. on 2017-08-25T14:10:07Z (GMT) / Submitted by IGOR VILELA CRUZ (igorv_cruz@hotmail.com) on 2017-08-28T19:02:27Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Normas 2017 - Modelo.docx: 3338687 bytes, checksum: 46e5af3e4a40a266341324a8a2c89512 (MD5) Dissertaçao Igor PDF.pdf: 2226362 bytes, checksum: cb218002197fae589f8f935e304ed8a0 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-08-29T14:16:57Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 cruz_iv_me_bot.pdf: 2226362 bytes, checksum: cb218002197fae589f8f935e304ed8a0 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-08-29T14:16:57Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 cruz_iv_me_bot.pdf: 2226362 bytes, checksum: cb218002197fae589f8f935e304ed8a0 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-25 / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Como opção para produção de silagem, o consórcio do milho com o capim-marandu e o feijão-guandu pode aumentar a quantidade de silagem produzida, sendo essa de melhor qualidade. O consórcio entre gramíneas e leguminosas pode ser uma estratégia interessante para aumentar os estoques de C e N e a quantidade forragem pelas pastagens cultivadas em sucessão, que resultarão em palhada para cobertura do solo no Sistema Plantio Direto (SPD). Em sucessão aos consórcios de verão, a aveia se torna uma opção importante, principalmente pela possiblidade de sobressemeadura, o que torna viável o seu cultivo por produtores que não tem acesso à semeadoras específicas para sementes miúdas. Objetivou-se com esse trabalho avaliar a produção de fitomassa aérea das espécies cultivadas, em função da presença ou não do feijão-guandu em consórcio com milho e capim marandú no verão para produção de silagem, e também em função das modalidades de semeadura da aveia-preta no outono-inverno para produção de pasto e palha, em SPD, com integração Lavoura-Pecuária (iLP), visando a terminação de cordeiros em semi-confinamento. Além disso, verificar se as emissões de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) por esses cultivos são compensados por aumentos no aporte de C no solo. A presente pesquisa foi realizada, na Fazenda Experimental Lageado, pertencente à Faculdade de Ciências Agronômicas – UNESP, localizada no município de Botucatu (SP), e foi conduzido nos anos agrícolas 2013/2014 e 2014/2015. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos casualizados, em parcela subdividida, com dois fatores (A e B) e 4 repetições. O fator A está alocado na parcela principal e constituído de dois tratamentos de verão, ou seja, duas modalidades de cultivo da cultura do milho para ensilagem, uma em consórcio com capim-marandu (Brachiaria brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf cv. Marandu [syn. Urochloa brizantha (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) R. D. Webster cv. Marandu] e a outra em consórcio com capim-marandu e feijão-guandu cv. BRS Mandarim. O fator B é alocado na subparcela e constituído de dois tratamentos de inverno, ou seja, duas modalidades de semeadura de aveia preta (Avena bysantina), uma a lanço (manual) e a outra em linha. Foi avaliado a qualidade e quantidade de silagem produzida, os teores de C e N no solo, o aporte sobre o solo de matéria seca, C e N pelos resíduos vegetais e os fluxos de gases de efeito estufa (CO2, N2O e CH4 provenientes do solo). Para comparação entre os tratamentos foi realizada análise de variância e as médias foram comparadas estatisticamente pelo teste t, no nível de 5 % de probabilidade de erro. As emissões de GEE foram maiores em outubro de 2014 logo após o pastejo, sendo o solo fonte de CH4. O cultivo do feijão-guandu resultou em maior aporte de resíduos vegetais sobre o solo, sendo esses resíduos com menor relação C/N. / Optionally for silage production, the intercrop of corn with the marandugrass and pigeon pea can increase the amount of produced silage, and this best quality. The consortium of grasses and legumes can be an interesting strategy to increase the stocks of C and N and the amount forage for pastures grown in succession, which will result in straw for mulching in no-tillage system. In succession to summer intercrop, oats becomes an important option, especially the possibility of overseeded, making it possible its cultivation by farmers who do not have access to specific seeders for small seeds. The objective of this study was to evaluate the air biomass production of cultivated species, depending on the presence or absence of pigeon pea intercropped with corn and pasture in the summer for silage, and also depending on the seeding arrangements for aveia- yellow in autumn-winter pasture production and straw in SPD with Crop-Livestock integration, aimed at terminating lambs in semi-confinement. Also, check if emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) by these crops are offset by increases in the C input to soil.This survey was conducted in the Experimental Farm Lageado, belonging to the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences - UNESP, located in Botucatu (SP), and was conducted in the agricultural year 2014/2015. The experimental design is a randomized block in a split plot with two factors (A and B) and 4 repetitions, Factor A is allocated in the main plot and consists of two summer treatments, ie two crop cultivation modes corn for silage, one in consortium with marandugrass and the other in consortium with marandugrass and pigeon pea cv. BRS Mandarin. Factor B is allocated in the sub-plot and comprises two winter treatments, ie two types of hp yellow oat sowing. Sao Carlos (Avena bysantina) a broadcasted (manually) and the other in line. It was the quality and quantity of produced silage rated. The gas samples for determination of CO2 flows, N2O and CH4 from the soil were carried out after grazing oats, and during regrowth of braquiaria in 2014, during the grazing in 2014 was isolated an area within the plot, and shortly after the end of the grazing cycle were installed two chambers, 1 in the area that was not grazed. The second round of collection was after planting oats in 2015. Overall GHG emissions were higher in October 2014 soon after grazing, and the ground source of CH4, the desetos animals and quality and quantity of straw in influencied emissions. The treatments with a light harrowing for merger of oats, obtained the highest values of lower values of PPA.It was analyzed the stock of C and N in the 0-40 cm depth in the soil and plants and straw, to determine the balance of Generally the treatment with the legume submitted a C / N ratio smaller but with a greater contribution to the treatment plant without the legume. This sense labor objective was to evaluate the Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse in function of the use of different Systems Integration Crop Farming and as emissions of fluorinated gases can be compensated hair increase of C stocks in soil and straw with these practice managements. / FAPESP: 2013/23853-9

The exploitation of natural resources lays the foundation for the economic and social development, but also is the root cause of various environmental issues. The study aims to analyze the process of natural resource exploitation, to optimize the extraction and utilization processes, maximizing their economic and social values while reducing the accompanied negative environmental impacts. This dissertation focuses on the impacts of exploitation of mineral and hydrocarbon resources in emerging countries on global warming effect, economy and society. Chapter 2 of the dissertation analyzes the life cycle GHG emissions associated with iron ore mining and processing in China. With rapid economic development and nationwide urbanization, the iron ore demand grows while the ore grade declines significantly, leading to the increasing GHG emissions from iron ore production. Results of the research show that the mean life-cycle GHG emissions for Chinese iron ore production are 270 kg CO2e/tonne, with a 90% confidence interval of 210 to 380 kg CO2e/tonne. The two largest contributors to overall GHG emissions are agglomeration (60%) and ore processing (23%). Iron content (ore grade) varies from 15% to 60% and is the largest contributor (40%) to the uncertainty of the results. Chapter 3 explores the impact of China’s outsourcing of iron resources on the global warming effect. This chapter applies the same life cycle assessment framework of Chinese iron ore in Chapter 2 to Australian and Brazilian ore production, and compares the LCA results of Australian and Brazilian ore to Chinese iron ore. Results show that among the three iron ore sources, Australian iron ore is the optimal choice for reducing GHG emissions. The mean life cycle GHG emissions of Australian iron ore fines is 60% less than that of Chinese iron ore fines (42 kg CO2e/tonne versus 110 kg CO2e/tonne). There is no significant difference between the imported iron ores sourced from Brazil versus the China’s domestic supplied iron ores, but if Chinese ore grade falls below 20% in the future, Brazilian iron ores would be preferred. The largest source of GHG emissions for Australian and Brazilian iron ores comes from ocean shipping (accounts for 58% and 75% of the overall GHG emissions respectively). Chapter 4 studies the impacts of the exploitation of pre-salt natural gas in Brazil. Natural gas production and its associated downstream industries are currently underdeveloped in Brazil, while the on-going exploitation of deep-sea pre-salt reservoir would potentially change the current situation. This study analyzes the impacts of the increasing pre-salt gas production and potential natural gas use pathways in downstream industries. Results reveal that GHG emissions associated with pre-salt gas production vary according to the stage of reservoir exploitation. At the early stage, the estimate of GHG emissions is 5.4 (90%CI: 4.5~6.4) gCO2e/MJ, and the value becomes 7.1 (90% CI: 6.3~8.0) gCO2e/MJ for the intermediate stage. All six natural gas use pathways analyzed in the study emit less GHG on average than their current corresponding incumbent pathways. The mean GHG emissions reduction from natural gas use for power generation, nitrogen fertilizer production, methanol production, as the reducing agent for steel making, ethylene-based polymer production, heavy-duty vehicle fueling are estimated to be 0.83, 2.3, 0.38, 35, 2.6 and 0.078 million tonnes CO2 equivalent per year, respectively. The specific economic profits of the six pathways are affected by the prices of natural gas and traditional fuel. Under current fuel prices, the net annual profits for the six pathways are -270, 87, 92, 1700, 190 and -1500 million dollars, respectively. The job creation potential from the pathways of power generation, nitrogen fertilizer production, methanol production and as reducing agent for steel production are estimated to be 28, 17, 5 and 36 thousand, respectively.

M.Phil. / Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) can be defined as one of the project-based mechanisms established under the Kyoto protocol mechanism as a supplementary measure to assist Annex 1 parties meet their emission reduction targets through investing in project activities that reduce Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions and contribute to sustainable development in Non–Annex 1 countries. These projects reduce GHG emissions and generate credits called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs) that the Annex 1 party can use to meet their emission reduction obligations under the Kyoto Protocol [Curnow & Hodes, 2009]. While countries such as China and India have benefited remarkably from the CDM, African countries (including South Africa (SA)) have failed to maximise the financial benefits offered by this mechanism. Even though South Africa is leading, in terms of the number of registered CDM projects in Africa, it is still lagging far behind other developing regions in this regard. The South African leaders in CDM project development are in the private sector. This research aims to identify the constraints that inhibit large scale implementation of CDM projects by Gauteng Municipalities and to investigate the reasons why South African municipalities are lagging behind the private sector in CDM project development, and identify opportunities for further development of CDM projects. This identification was achieved by compiling a list of known barriers (then investigating these barriers together with a number of other factors that may impact negatively on the CDM market in South Africa) The study was conducted using qualitative research techniques, which utilises methods such as participant observation, in-depth interviews and/or focus groups. Three different groups of respondents were identified: (i) the European CER buyers; (ii) the project developers/ CDM consultants in South Africa; and (iii) the Gauteng municipal officials responsible for CDM project development. A separate questionnaire was compiled for each of the three target groups, with purpose of drawing conclusions about the prevailing status of the South African CDM market from the perspectives of these three different groups. Three previous studies have been conducted to investigate the barriers of implementing CDM in South Africa, examining the problem from various perspectives. Little et al. [2007] conducted a study that focused on the inhibiting and facilitating factors affecting the implementation of CDM by South African industries. Wilson [2007] focused on the barriers against and drivers for the implementation of CDM within the Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality - this study drew conclusions about CDM implementation in municipalities based on the experiences of this single municipality. Winkler and van Es [2007] dealt with the opportunities and constraints of the CDM implementation in energy efficiency projects throughout South Africa.

Reducing energy demand and carbon emissions from the UK housing stock through efficiency improvements is the focus of policy interest. The 2008 UK Climate Change Act set legally binding targets of an 80% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions against a 1990 baseline. The majority of emissions in the residential sector are carbon dioxide emissions arising from energy used for heating homes and water, cooking, lighting and electrical appliances. The sector s contribution to total UK emissions is significant and therefore reducing energy use in homes is an important factor if the UK is to meet its targets. In this research an initial survey of studies of the residential sector has been conducted to review factors considered to influence energy use and related emissions in UK housing. Further review identified energy and climate change policy instruments and structural change in the energy supply sector between 1970 and the present. A subsequent time-line of policy and events describes the changing, historical policy landscape related to energy efficiency improvements in the sector. As a result of these reviews, a need to better understand how householders have responded to technical energy efficiency improvements in housing, and the influence of social and economic factors, was identified as a research gap. In order to model householders historical behaviour Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) was identified as an innovative approach for this field of research as a potential means to measure sector efficiency in a new way. The analysis has two stages. In the first, DEA is used to measure the relative efficiency with which the UK housing sector has managed its energy use and related emissions to deliver energy services such as space heating and lighting to householders. In the second stage, multiple regressions are used to examine whether the variability over time in the efficiency measure can be explained by policy interventions, energy market developments, and economic and social factors. DEA is a method for modelling the relative performance efficiency with which an observed sample converts measurable inputs to quantitative outputs. In this research, samples consist of annual observations of the UK housing stock, using data largely taken from DECC s UK housing energy fact file. An efficiency frontier of performance enveloping the observed sample points as closely as possible is constructed through DEA mathematical programming. The core of the analysis lies in identifying relevant quantitative input and output measures from available data. A range of measures of comfort and energy service levels to represent energy service outputs, and household energy and emissions data to represent inputs are examined in the analysis. The result is a timeline of efficiency performance that can be related to socio-economic change and the history of policy interventions. The analysis shows that the efficiency of the UK housing stock to manage its energy use and related emissions has not followed the steady upward trend that might have been expected from technical innovation. There is evidence of rebound effects over time, with householders behaviour in response to technical efficiency improvements acting to raise comfort levels rather than lower energy usage. Nevertheless, statistically significant roles can be identified for factors such as income, price and tenure which have implications for policy design and control and lead to a number of policy recommendations.

Climate change has recently received more attention in the shipping sector. This is mainly due to a growing demand for reduced global emissions and the fact that shipping is one of the fastest growing sectors in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In parallel, ports have started to introduce programmes and policies to address these emissions. This study aims at quantifying potential reductions of ships' emissions of GHG from efforts implemented by ports. Building on a model that calculates GHG emissions from ships in various scenarios for individual ports, different kinds of measures for emission reductions are investigated for diverse types of vessels and parts of the port area. A case study of the ship traffic to the Port of Gothenburg is performed. Projections of ship emissions in the port area for 2030 are made, and three scenarios, ‘1. Alternative fuel’, ‘2. Ship design’ and ‘3. Operation’, are analysed. These scenarios are related to a business as usual development. GHG emissions from ships in the port are projected to increase by 40% to 2030 in a business as usual (BAU) scenario. The highest reductions were seen in the ‘Operation’ scenario where GHG emissions were 10% lower than the BAU level.

Legal regulation of climate protection following the adoption of the Paris Agreement Abstract The Paris Agreement was adopted on 12 December 2015 and became effective on 4 November 2016. The Agreement's central aim is to keep the increase in global average temperature well below 2žC above pre-industrial levels and to limit the increase to 1.5žC. The Agreement starts to apply in 2020. Under the Paris Agreement, each Party must communicate its nationally determined contributions, which will help to achieve the purpose of the Agreement. The aim of this thesis is to analyse the development of the legal protection of the Earth's climate system in the European Union after the adoption of the Paris Agreement. Part One is subdivided into four chapters. The first chapter is introductory and provides an overview of basic terminology, scientific knowledge and observed changes in climate and their impact. Chapter Two deals with the subject matter of international climate change law. Chapter Three deals with the legal sources of international law, in particular with international conventions. Legal principles are described there as well. Chapter Four looks at the historical development of the international protection of the climate. Also, it focuses on the analysis of the Paris Agreement. This chapter describes the...

AbstractCarbon Footprints, as an indicator of climate performance, help identify major GHG emission sources and potential areas of improvement. In the context of greatly expanding sub-national climate efforts, research on Carbon Footprint accounting at municipality level is timely and necessary to facilitate the establishment of local climate strategies. This study aims at exploring the methodologies for Carbon Footprint assessment at municipality level, based on the case study of Haninge municipality in Sweden. In the study, a Greenhouse Gas inventory of Haninge is developed and it is discussed how the municipality can reduce its Carbon Footprint. The Carbon Footprint of Haninge is estimated to be more than 338,225 tonnesCO2eq, and 4.5 tonnes CO2eq per capita. These numbers are twice as large as the production-based emissions, which are estimated to be 169,024 tonnes CO2eq in total, and approximately 2.3 tonnes CO2eq per capita. Among them the most important parts are emissions caused by energy use, and indirect emissions caused by local private consumption. It is worth noting that a large proportion of emissions occur outside Haninge as a result of local consumption. Intensive use of biomass for heat production and electricity from renewable sources and nuclear power have significantly reduced the climate impact of Haninge. The major barrier for Carbon Footprint accounting at municipality level is lack of local statistics. In the case of Sweden, several databases providing emission statistics are used in the research, including KRE, RUS, NIR and Environmental Account.