Nordex, a wind-turbine manufacturer and developer, has just launched the development activity over Belgium’s French-speaking Region – the Walloon Region – with the current political context favorable to wind energy deployment. Since the Walloon market is unknown, the master thesis aims to identify the appropriate approach to use for optimal wind farm development and the critical issues that may impinge on it. The scope of the master thesis is thus to find two to three sites well suited for wind farm implementation in the province of Luxembourg and to develop these sites.  An exhaustive study of the wind farm potential of the province of Luxembourg has been led, based on geographic data analysis with the GIS ArcGIS®, feasibility studies conducting, meetings with districts’ administration as well as visits onsite. In addition, a thorough comparative analysis of the Belgian specification for grid connection has been performed to identify any requirement that is not included in the French and German grid codes, which are the benchmarks of the development activity in Nordex France. Many obstacles have been encountered in wind farm development, chiefly a strong existing competition in the wind energy sector and a limited grid capacity. In addition time can be a friend but it can also sometimes be a foe at some stages that rely on public administration. Consequently from the 40 identified sites with ArcGIS®, only three have succeeded. Regarding the Belgian requirements for grid connection, all can be met thanks to an existing German specification data sheet. Eventually the Walloon policy towards wind energy development is expected to evolve so as to foster wind farm deployment in Wallonia and to reach the objectives set for 2020 (2200 MW of installed wind capacity while in January 2011 only 440 MW were in operation). Consequently to that, Nordex’ approach may have to adapt to the new regulations.

Connecting more non-dispatchable renewable energy sources (RESs) will result in a higher power variability and a lower system inertia when the synchronous generators are replaced by inverter-connected RES. Inverter control can be divided in three categories: grid-following, grid-forming (GFM) and grid-supporting. A literature review of inverter control strategies identifies the GFM control as having an important role in maintaining system stability assuming near 100 % inverter-connected RES. Critical aspects of the inverter control are also identified; the control need to function autonomously, be able to remain connected during transient events and be insensitive to grid topology. Combining various RES is also shown to improve system stability. The combination of RES that has been investigated in most studies is wind, solar and wave power. Wave power is still a young technology compared to solar and wind power. It generates higher power fluctuations over short time periods with a significant difference between average and maximum power. Additionally, wave power parks (WPPs) are often connected via long cables which contribute reactive power to the grid. These challenges has to be considered to maintain system stability and power quality when connecting a WPP to the grid. In a Power Hardware-In-the-Loop study of how a WPP affects the power quality at the point of common coupling (PCC), it is found that the impact is highest for WPPs with fewer generators as the variability is reduced when several generators are excited at different times. Energy storage is also shown to have a significant impact on the power quality at the PCC with reduced flicker, total harmonic distortion and power and voltage variability. A simulation study also shows the positive impact of energy storage on power variability and the role of inverter control in reactive power compensation.

Thesis (PhD)--Stellenbosch University, 2014. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: In this study the recently proposed slip-synchronous permanent magnet generator (SS-PMG), is considered as an alternative to other wind generator topologies. The SS-PMG is connected directly to the grid without the need for a power electronic converter and it can also be connected directly to the turbine without a gearbox. Due to the SS-PMG requiring no gearbox or power electronic converter it is evident that this type of generator have a significant advantage regarding reduced maintenance and operation costs. The SS-PMG consist of two integrated permanent magnet generating units, a directly turbine connected slip permanent magnet generator (slip-PMG) and a directly grid connected permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). In this, study many of the implementation aspects of the SS-PMG are addressed. It is found that the short-circuit torque and current profiles of both the slip-PMG and PMSG are significantly influenced by the end-winding inductance and PM end-effects. A new analytical method is proposed for the calculation of the end-winding inductance in this study and a new approach is devised to take the PM end-effects into account. A very important aspect considered in this thesis, is the stability of the SS-PMG connected directly to the grid regarding turbine, generator and grid voltage disturbances, which influences the design of the PMSG and slip-PMG units. Furthermore, it is important that the final SS-PMG design comply to the relevant grid code specifications. For both the PMSG and slip-PMG an extensive design optimisation is done, with several novel wind generator concepts introduced. In this study the dynamic behaviour, grid connection aspects and operational principles of the SSPMG are verified by means of practical tests in the laboratory and for the SS-PMG interfaced with an existing 15 kW wind turbine system in the field. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: In hierdie studie word die onlangs voorgestelde, glip-sinchroon permanent magneet generator (GSPMG), oorweeg as ’n alternatief vir ander wind generator topologieë. Die GS-PMG word direk aan die netwerk gekonnekteer sonder die nodigheid van ’n drywingselektroniese omsetter en dit kan ook direk aan die turbine gekoppel word sonder ’n ratkas. Omdat die GS-PMG geen ratkas of drywingselektroniese omsetter benodig nie, is dit duidelik dat hierdie tipe generator ’n geweldige voordeel het rakende verminderde onderhoud en operasionele kostes. Die GS-PMG bestaan uit twee geïntegreerde permanent magneet generator eenhede, ’n direkte turbine gekoppelde glip permanent magneet generator (glip-PMG) en ’n direkte netwerk gekonnekteerde permanent magneet sinchroon generator (PMSG). In hierdie studie word baie van die implementerings aspekte van die SS-PMG aangeraak. Daar word gevind dat die kortsluit draaimoment en stroom profiele van beide die glip- PMG en PMSG geweldig deur die end-wikkeling induktansie en PM randeffekte beïnvloed word. Dus, word ’n nuwe analitiese metode voorgestel vir die uitwerk van die end-wikkeling induktansie in hierdie studie en ’n nuwe benadering word voorgestel om die PM randeffekte in ag te neem. ’n Baie belangrike aspek om te oorweeg in hierdie tesis, is die stabiliteit van die GS-PMG direk aan die netwerk gekoppel rakende turbine, generator en netwerkspanning steurnisse, wat die ontwerp van die PMSG en glip-PMG eenhede beïnvloed. Dit is ook belangrik dat die finale SS-PMG ontwerp voldoen aan die relevante netwerkkode spesifikasies. Vir beide die PMSG en glip-PMG word ’n deeglike ontwerpsoptimering gedoen, met talle nuwe wind generator konsepte voorgestel. In hierdie studie word die dinamiese gedrag, netwerk konneksie aspekte en operasionele kenmerke van die GSPMG geverifieer met behulp van praktiese toetse in die laboratorium en vir die SS-PMG geïntegreer met ’n bestaande 15 kW wind turbine stelsel in die veld.

Thesis (MScEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The slip synchronous-permanent magnet generator (SS-PMG) is a direct-driven, direct-to-grid generator for wind turbine applications. This investigation focuses on achieving automated grid connection and low voltage ride-through for a small-scale SS-PMG. To reduce cost and complexity, components such as blade pitch controllers and frequency converters are avoided. Instead, electromagnetic braking is employed to control turbine speed prior to grid synchronisation and compensation resistances are used to facilitate grid fault ride-through. The conditions under which the SS-PMG can be successfully synchronised with the grid are determined, indicating a need for speed control. An evaluation of electromagnetic braking strategies reveals that satisfactory speed control performance can be achieved when employing back-to-back thyristors to switch in the braking load. Simulations show that controlled synchronisation can be executed successfully under turbulent wind conditions. All controllable parameters are held within safe limits, but the SS-PMG terminal voltage drop is higher than desired. Compensation is developed to allow the SS-PMG to ride through the voltage dip profile specified by the Irish distribution code. It is found that a combination of series and shunt resistances is necessary to shield the SS-PMG from the voltage dip, while balancing active power transfer. The flexibility offered by thyristor switching of the shunt braking load is instrumental in coping with turbulent wind conditions and unbalanced dips. The South African voltage dip profile is also managed with conditional success. Following on from the theoretical design, the grid connection controller is implemented for practical testing purposes. Protection functions are developed to ensure safe operation under various contingencies. Before testing, problems with the operation of the thyristors are overcome. Practical testing shows that grid synchronisation can be undertaken safely by obeying the theoretically determined conditions. The speed control mechanism is also shown to achieve acceptable dynamic performance. Finally, the SS-PMG is incorporated into a functioning wind turbine system and automated grid connection is demonstrated under turbulent wind conditions. Future investigations may be focused on optimal control strategies, alternative solid-state switching schemes, and reactive power control. Low voltage ride-through should also be optimised for the South African dip profile and validated experimentally. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die glip-sinchroon permanente magneet generator (GS-PMG) is ‘n direkte dryf, direkte netwerkgekoppelde generator vir windturbine toepassings. Hierdie ondersoek fokus op die bereiking van ’n ge-outomatiseerde netwerkkoppeling en lae spanning deurry vir ‘n kleinskaalse GS-PMG. Om kostes en kompleksiteit te verminder, word komponente soos lemsteekbeheerders en frekwensie-omsetters vermy. In plaas daarvan word elektromagnetiese remwerking gebruik om die turbine spoed, voorgaande net-werksinchronisasie, te beheer, en word kompensasieweerstande gebruik om netwerkfoutdeurry te handhaaf. Die omstandighede waaronder die GS-PMG suksesvol met die netwerk gesinchroniseer kan word, is vasgestel en dit het die behoefte aan spoedbeheer uitgewys. ‘n Evaluering van elektromagnetiese remstrategië wys uit dat ’n bevredigende spoedbeheervermoë verkry kan word as anti-parallelle tiristors gebruik word om die remlas te skakel. Simulasies wys dat beheerde netwerksinchronisasie suksesvol uitgevoer kan word, selfs onder turbulente windtoestande. Alle beheerbare parameters is binne veilige perke gehou, maar die GS-PMG se klemspanningsval is gevind as hoë as verwag. Kompensasie is ontwikkel om die GS-PMG toe te laat om deur die spanningsvalprofiel, soos gespesifieer deur die Ierse distribusiekode, te ry. Dit is gevind dat ‘n kombinasie van serie- en parallelle weerstande nodig is om die GS-PMG teen die spanningsval te beskerm, terwyl aktiewe drywingsoordrag gebalanseer word. Die buigbaarheid wat verkry word met die tiristorskakeling van die parallele weerstand is noodsaaklik in die hanteering van turbulente windtoestande en ongebalanseerde spanningsvalle. Die Suid-Afrikaanse spanningsvalprofiel is ook met voorwaardelike sukses hanteer. In opvolg van die teoretiese ontwerp is die netwerkkoppelingsbeheerder vir praktiese toetsdoeleindes in werking gestel. Beskermingsfunksies is ontwikkel om veilige werking onder verskeie gebeurlikhede te verseker. Die probleme met die werking van die tiristors is oorkom voor die aanvang van die toetse. Die praktiese toetse bewys dat netwerksinchronisasie veilig gedoen kan word deur die teoretiese bepaalde voorwaardes te volg. Dit is ook getoon dat met die spoedbeheermeganisme aanvaarbare dinamiese gedrag verkry kan word. Ten laaste is die GS-PMG in ‘n werkende windturbinestelsel geïnkorporeer en outomatiese netwerkkoppeling is onder turbulente windtoestande gedemonstreer. Toekomstige ondersoeke kan toegespits word op optimale beheerstrategië, alternatiewe vaste toestand skakelingskemas en reaktiewe drywingsbeheer. Lae spanning deurry moet nog vir die Suid- Afrikaanse spanningsprofiel ge-optimeer en eksperimenteel bevestig word.

A energia solar fotovoltaica é uma alternativa de energia limpa que está se tornando uma importante opção para se utilizar eletricidade em regiões desprovidas de energia elétrica. Um estudo das condições energéticas da região através de consulta às concessionárias de energia elétrica (Eletricidade de Moçambique - EDM no caso de Moçambique) e do Ministério de Energia do Governo, são fontes importantes de dados para se conhecer o cenário energético de cada região. Outra fonte de dados importante para se estimar o potencial de geração de energia solar fotovoltaico sãoos indices de irradiação da região. Estes podemser obtidos através do órgão meteorológico da região (INAM no caso de Moçambique) que forneceesses dados para as principais cidades através de suas estações meteorológicas espalhadas na região. Laboratórios de pesquisa internacionais sãooutra importante fonte de dados solarimétricos, pois utilizam satélites capazes de cobrir todo globo terrestre e os dados obtidos são publicados e permitem, a partir das coordenadas do local, identificar a irradiação solar em diversos locais do mundo. Os dados desses laboratórios podem ser comparados com dados de órgãos oficiais da região. Utilizando o banco de dados solarimétricospode-se calcular o potencial fotovoltaico de geração de energia de cada localização e também definir qual região seria mais propícia a utilização de energiasolar fotovoltaica conectada à rede. / Photovoltaic solar energy is an alternative clean energy that it is becoming an important option to be used in region that it does not have available electricity. A study about energy condition of region contacting local energy company (Electricity of Mozambique EDM in the case of Moçambique) and the ministry of governmental are important resources of data to know the electric power conditions scenery of each region. Another important data resource to assesss the photovoltaic potencial of a region is to access the solarimetric data of region. It should be got from the region meteorological organ (in Mozambique it is INAM) that provides this information for main cities through its meteorological station spread across the region. Research International labs are another important resource of the data. They use satellites that are able to cover the whole terrestrial globe and make it available. These data allow applications through the coordinates of the location, identify the exact solar irradiance at any point (in the case NREL in the USA). Laboratory data should be validated through comparisons with data from the official bodies of the region. Thus it is possible to build a solarimetric database and assess photovoltaic potential power generation of each location. On the current study done to Mozambique it was observed that some regions without electricity grid are very adequate to the utilization of solar energy for the direct generation of electricity connected to grid.

A energia solar fotovoltaica é uma alternativa de energia limpa que está se tornando uma importante opção para se utilizar eletricidade em regiões desprovidas de energia elétrica. Um estudo das condições energéticas da região através de consulta às concessionárias de energia elétrica (Eletricidade de Moçambique - EDM no caso de Moçambique) e do Ministério de Energia do Governo, são fontes importantes de dados para se conhecer o cenário energético de cada região. Outra fonte de dados importante para se estimar o potencial de geração de energia solar fotovoltaico sãoos indices de irradiação da região. Estes podemser obtidos através do órgão meteorológico da região (INAM no caso de Moçambique) que forneceesses dados para as principais cidades através de suas estações meteorológicas espalhadas na região. Laboratórios de pesquisa internacionais sãooutra importante fonte de dados solarimétricos, pois utilizam satélites capazes de cobrir todo globo terrestre e os dados obtidos são publicados e permitem, a partir das coordenadas do local, identificar a irradiação solar em diversos locais do mundo. Os dados desses laboratórios podem ser comparados com dados de órgãos oficiais da região. Utilizando o banco de dados solarimétricospode-se calcular o potencial fotovoltaico de geração de energia de cada localização e também definir qual região seria mais propícia a utilização de energiasolar fotovoltaica conectada à rede. / Photovoltaic solar energy is an alternative clean energy that it is becoming an important option to be used in region that it does not have available electricity. A study about energy condition of region contacting local energy company (Electricity of Mozambique EDM in the case of Moçambique) and the ministry of governmental are important resources of data to know the electric power conditions scenery of each region. Another important data resource to assesss the photovoltaic potencial of a region is to access the solarimetric data of region. It should be got from the region meteorological organ (in Mozambique it is INAM) that provides this information for main cities through its meteorological station spread across the region. Research International labs are another important resource of the data. They use satellites that are able to cover the whole terrestrial globe and make it available. These data allow applications through the coordinates of the location, identify the exact solar irradiance at any point (in the case NREL in the USA). Laboratory data should be validated through comparisons with data from the official bodies of the region. Thus it is possible to build a solarimetric database and assess photovoltaic potential power generation of each location. On the current study done to Mozambique it was observed that some regions without electricity grid are very adequate to the utilization of solar energy for the direct generation of electricity connected to grid.

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2017-04-19T19:08:59Z No. of bitstreams: 1 filipecaixeiromattos.pdf: 2641141 bytes, checksum: 014bbdead0d71ad1d9852cb7403b3439 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2017-04-20T12:46:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 filipecaixeiromattos.pdf: 2641141 bytes, checksum: 014bbdead0d71ad1d9852cb7403b3439 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-04-20T12:46:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 filipecaixeiromattos.pdf: 2641141 bytes, checksum: 014bbdead0d71ad1d9852cb7403b3439 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-09-02 / Esta dissertação apresenta uma contribuição ao estudo de um inversor de tensão monofásico (VSI – Voltage Source Inverter), com saída em corrente, aplicado ao processamento de energia em sistemas solares fotovoltaicos (PV) monofásicos conectados à rede elétrica de distribuição. Através do controle por corrente média, é possível em um único estágio de processamento de energia rastrear o ponto de máxima potência do arranjo fotovoltaico e injetar na rede elétrica uma corrente com baixa distorção harmônica total (THD) e em fase com a tensão da rede CA. Para implementação do controle do sistema é utilizado o circuito integrado UC3854, da Texas Instruments, componente analógico de baixo custo e com funções típicas de correção de fator de potência de fontes de alimentação. Equações de análise e projeto, resultados de simulação e informações experimentais, obtidas de um protótipo de 720W, são incluídos neste material. / This dissertation presents a contribution to the study of a single-phase voltage inverter (VSI – Voltage Source Inverter), with current output, applied to the processing of photovoltaic (PV) solar power connected to single-phase electric distribution network. By controlling the average current, it is possible, in a single stage of power processing, to track the maximum power point of PV array and inject into the grid a current with low total harmonic distortion (THD) and in phase with the AC mains voltage. To implement the control system it is used a low cost Texas Instruments' analog integrated circuit UC3854, which includes a power factor correction typical function. Equations concerning analysis and design steps, simulation results and experimental data obtained from a 720W prototype are included in this document.

La problématique de la production d'énergie renouvelable, l'énergie du vent dans notre cas, est liée au réglage de l'amplitude et de la fréquence de la tension du générateur entraîné par l'éolienne. Ces réglages sont nécessaires pour injecter la puissance électrique produite sur le réseau électrique. Les avancées de l'électronique de puissance, en particulier les convertisseurs de puissances commandés (redresseur, onduleur, convertisseur boost, etc), ont aidé à résoudre ces problèmes de réglage. Le défi de la production éolienne est d'améliorer la stratégie de commande appliquée aux convertisseurs, afin d'augmenter la qualité de la puissance produite et de minimiser les pertes électriques et ainsi de réduire le coût de production. Dans cette thèse, nous avons développé la commande non linéaire fondée sur la platitude d'un système de production éolien et son couplage au réseau. Cette approche permet de faciliter la construction de la loi de commande. Nous avons exposé un réglage simple et intuitif des gains des contrôleurs, reposant sur très peu de paramètres. Les pertes électriques au stator du GSAP sont minimisées, la stratégie de MPPT est réalisée sur la partie de production. Le facteur de puissance de l'énergie injectée sur le réseau électrique est contrôlé à n'importe quelle valeur désirée comprise entre zéro et un. / The problem of the production of renewable energy, ``wind energy in our case'' is related to the adjustment of the amplitude and the frequency of the voltage of the generator driven by the wind turbine. These settings are required to supply the produced electrical power to an electrical network. The advancement of the power electronics used in the power converters (rectifiers, inverters, boost converters, etc.), helped to solve these two problems of adjustment. The challenge of wind generation is to improve the control strategy applied to the converters to increase the quality of the produced power and to minimize the electrical losses of the generator, and therefore to reduce the cost of production system. In this thesis, we developed the nonlinear flatness-based control of a wind generation system. This command is used to facilitate the construction of the control law. We have shown that this command allows the designer to choose the controller gains with few and intuitive tuning parameters. Electrical losses in the stator of the Permanent Magnets Synchronous Generator (PMSG) are minimized, the Maximum Power Point Tracking strategy (MPPT) is applied to the production system and the power factor of the apparent power injected to the grid is controlled to obtain any desired value between zero and one.

To meet the energy targets and improve the lack of power and higher prices in southern Sweden, the amount of electricity must increase, and alternative fuel sources be introduced. This thesis examines the techno-economic feasibility of offshore wind-hydrogen production in southern Sweden, depending on whether an onshore- or offshore hydrogen system is used, and how grid connection subsidies would affect this. New research and development regarding the subjects were analyzed and reviewed. A project that has currently applied for a permit in southern Sweden, Skåne Offshore Wind Park, was used as a case study where the information from the review and data from similar parks were used to determine the cost and production for the two different systems. The costs were then adjusted according to the three different subsidy scenarios: current with no subsidies, partial with sea cable and transformer costs removed, or a full subsidy scenario where only the internal grid cost remained to achieve feasible levelized costs for electricity and hydrogen based on a discount rate of 6% and a lifetime of 25 years. Finally, a sensitivity analysis was performed.   The results showed that market competitive electricity prices are only achieved with an onshore hydrogen system- and only if a full subsidy is introduced or if a best-case scenario is applied. In a worst-case scenario, no competitive electricity prices were achieved. For the offshore hydrogen system, the extra fuel system is too inefficient for electricity production. For hydrogen, prices were achieved within a reasonable price range of green hydrogen for all scenarios, where the onshore hydrogen system was 4% more advantageous. In a best-case scenario, competitive values ​​even against blue hydrogen were achieved for the offshore hydrogen systems and for the full subsidy onshore hydrogen system. For hydrogen, the offshore hydrogen system's hydrogen prices were competitive regardless of subsidies, however this system had the highest CAPEX and OPEX costs.   The results of the study underline the need for fixed conditions but also the necessity of introducing a full subsidy for the grid connection cost - or best-case scenario conditions - to encourage further offshore wind power development.

Grid connection of wave energy is one of the crucial remaining areas of development towards the commercialization of this renewable energy technology. One of the major challenges with the grid connection of the wave energy technology is power variability. The rapidly changing voltage and power production from very high peaks to lows, increases the complexity for the wave farm developers to reach an agreement with the grid owners to satisfy the grid compliance. Correspondingly, electrical network designs of the offshore wind sector also differ on some key features which includes the power variability, cable lengths, power ratings, connection layouts, sea depths and transmission distances. These differences present new challenges to engineers in adapting technology and knowhow from the wind industry wherever applicable; whereas in parts of the network where power ratings are <2 MW, new designs need to be derived. Hence, power system dynamic modelling of variable emerging wave energy puts a great field of research. CorPower Ocean AB is in the process of developing a 300-kW point absorber type Wave Energy Converter (WEC) that is a commercial fullscale prototype. In this regard, the thesis will discuss the topics of optimization of offshore wave energy electrical networks for farms primarily focused on a 10 MW rating. The modelling for RMS simulation, network efficiency, voltage profile and power quality analysis has been simulated on DIgSILENT PowerFactory. Grid connection compliance for voltage levels, voltage flicker and power factor has been evaluated against local site regulations and parameters for optimal efficiency and better power quality with respect to grid connection is discussed. The impact of grid impedance angle and the wave front incidence angle on the rating of wave farm being connected is also evaluated. The study leads to an optimized electrical layout of a wave farm which can tackle problems such as voltage flicker and varying power. The study also leads to the understanding of better layout for the point absorber with least transmission losses. This study can also be generalized for bigger wave farms in the future which will reduce the complexity and time for wave farms engineers while planning.