Torrefaction has become a topic of interest in recent times not only because farmers could increase their income due to more farming activities for biomass feedstock demands but also it promotes opportunities for green job creation, provides alternative fuel source for coal fired plants, and contributes to greenhouse gas emission mitigation. Hence, this thesis explored the torrefaction behaviour of both herbaceous (switchgrass, miscanthus, wheat straw) and short rotation (willow) agricultural energy crops in terms of hydrophobicity, grindability and energy density. The lignocellulosic compositions of raw and treated switchgrass and bulk density of raw and treated miscanthus were also determined. Hence, the outcomes of these experimental investigations facilitated the development of a torrefaction definition. The research also studied the heat transfer mechanisms of torrefaction and developed mathematical models to simulate the heat generation profile due to the internal and spontaneous combustion of a cylindrically-shaped poplar wood. COMSOL modeling software was used to analyze and simulate the heat generation profiles that were closely similar to those from the experiments; hence led to a development of a correction factor to scale treatment inputs. / Thesis / OMAFRA HQP

The aim of this thesis was to summarize and assess the possibility of using recycled glass in the manufacture of blended portland cements. Work was focused on examining the possibilities to improve pozzolanic properties of recycled glass with new milling processes. The formation of agglomerates material during the course of grinding and their subsequent effect on the hydration process of binders has been also examining. Part of the thesis was also focused on grindability of materials and determination of using separate or inters grinding.

The aim of this thesis is to summarize the knowledge gained in the field of grinding medium-hard and hard materials. Work has focused on examining the grindability of the material using available laboratory mill. The part of the work is subsequent optimization of the grinding process on the device and evaluation of the results.

Increasing the share of biomass, preferably by replacing fossil fuels, is one way to mitigate the present climate change. Fossil coal can be directly replaced by co-combustion of coal and biomass and fossil engine fuels (gasoline and diesel) could potentially partly be replaced by synthetic renewable fuels produced via entrained flow gasification of biomass. The use of biomass in these processes is so far limited, partly because of the fibrous and hygroscopic nature of biomass which leads to problem in storing, transportation, handling and feeding. This thesis demonstrates how the challenging characteristics of raw biomass are mitigated by the pretreatment method torrefaction. Torrefaction is a process where biomass is heated in an oxygen deficient atmosphere to typically between 240 and 350°C for a time period of 2 minutes to 1 hour. Most of the torrefaction R&D in the literature have so far been performed with bench-scale batch reactors. For the purpose of carefully studying continuous torrefaction, a 20 kg/h torrefaction pilot plant was therefore designed, constructed and evaluated. The overall conclusion from this thesis is that the many benefits of torrefied biomass are valid also when produced with a continuous pilot plant and for typically Swedish forest biomasses. Some of the documented improved biomass properties are increased heating value, increased energy density, higher friability (lower milling energy) and less hydrophilic biomass (less moisture uptake). Most of the improvements can be attributed to the decomposition of hemicellulose and cellulose during torrefaction. The most common variables for describing the torrefaction degree are mass yield or anhydrous weight loss but both are challenging to determine for continuous processes. We therefore evaluated three different methods (one existing and two new suggestions) to determine degree of torrefaction that not require measurement of mass loss. The degree of torrefaction based on analyzed higher heating value of the raw and torrefied biomass (DTFHHV) predicted mass yield most accurate and had lowest combined uncertainty. Pelletizing biomass enhance transportation and handling but results from pelletization of torrefied biomass is still very limited in the literature and mainly reported from single pellet presses. A pelletization study of torrefied spruce with a ring die in pilot scale was therefore performed. The bulk energy density was found to be 14.6 GJ/m3 for pelletized torrefied spruce (mass yield 75%), a 40% increase compared to regular white pellets and therefore are torrefied pellets more favorable for long distance transports. More optimization of the torrefied biomass and the pelletization process is though needed for acquiring industrial quality pellets with lower amount of fines and higher pellet durability than attained in the present study. Powders from milled raw biomass are generally problematic for feeding and handling and torrefied biomass has been proposed to mitigate these issues. The influence of torrefaction and pelletization on powder and particle properties after milling was therefore studied. The results show that powder from torrefied biomass were enhanced with higher bulk densities, lower angle of repose as well as smaller less elongated particles with less surface roughness. Even higher powder qualities were achieved by pelletizing the torrefied biomass before milling, i.e. another reason for commercial torrefied biomass to be pelletized. Entrained flow gasification (EFG) is a promising option for conversion of biomass to other more convenient renewable energy carriers such as electricity, liquid biofuels and green petrochemicals. Also for EFGs are torrefied fuels very limited studied. Raw and torrefied logging residues were successfully gasified in a pilot scale pressurized entrained flow biomass gasifier at 2 bar(a) with a fuel feed corresponding to 270 kWth. Significantly lower methane content (50% decrease) in the syngas was also demonstrated for the torrefied fuel with mass yield 49%. The low milling energy consumption for the torrefied fuels compared to the raw fuel was beneficial for the gasification plant efficiency.

The production of multi-component cement from clinker and two additives such as trass and blast furnace slag has now spread throughout the world. These additives are generally interground with clinker to produce a composite cement of specified surface area. The grinding stage is of great importance as it accounts for a major portion of the total energy consumed in cement production and also as it affects the quality of composite cements by the particle size distribution of the individual additives produced during grinding. This thesis study was undertaken to characterize the breakage properties of clinker and the additives trass and slag with the intention of delineating their grinding properties in separate and intergrinding modes. Single particle breakage tests were conducted by means of a drop weight tester in order to define an inherent grindability for the clinker and trass samples in terms of the median product size ( ). In addition, a back-calculation procedure was applied to obtain the breakage rate parameters ( ) of perfect mixing ball mill model using industrial data from a cement plant. Kinetic and locked-cycle grinding tests were performed in a standard Bond mill to determine breakage rates and distribution functions for clinker, trass and slag. Bond work indices of these cement components and of their binary and ternary mixtures were determined and compared. Attempts were made to use back-calculated grinding rate parameters to simulate the Bond grindability test. The self-similarity law was proved to be true for clinker and trass that their shapes of the self-similarity curves are unique to the feed material and independent of the grinding energy expended and overall fineness attained. The self-similar behaviour of tested materials will enable process engineers to get useful information about inherent grindability and energy consumption in any stage of the comminution process. The parameters, and indicating the degree of size reduction were defined with different theoretical approaches as a function of energy consumption by using single particle breakage test data of clinker and trass. The breakage distribution functions were found to be non-normalizable. On the other hand, the breakage rate functions were found to be constant with respect to time but variable with respect to changing composition in the Bond ball mill. These variations are critical in computer simulation of any test aiming to minimize the experimental efforts of the standard procedure. As a result of the back calculation of breakage rate parameters for clinker and trass samples in the Bond mill, no common pattern was seen for the variation of the rate parameters. Therefore, computer simulation of the Bond grindability test did not result in an accurate estimation of the Bond work index.

Grinding of clinker is the last and most energy-consuming stage of the cement manufacturing process, drawing on average 40% of the total energy required to produce one ton of cement. During this stage, the clinker particles are substantially reduced in size to generate a certain level of fineness as it has a direct influence on such performance characteristics of the final product as rate of hydration, water demand, strength development, and other. The grinding objectives tying together the energy and fineness requirements were formulated based on a review of the state of the art of clinker grinding and numerical simulation employing the Markov chain theory. The literature survey revealed that not only the specific surface of the final product, but also the shape of its particle size distribution (PSD) is responsible for the cement performance characteristics. While it is feasible to engineer the desired PSD in the laboratory, the process-specific recommendations on how to generate the desired PSD in the industrial mill are not available. Based on a population balance principle and stochastic representation of the particle movement within the grinding system, the Markov chain model for the circuit consisting of a tube ball mill and a high efficiency separator was introduced through the matrices of grinding and classification. The grinding matrix was calculated using the selection and breakage functions, whereas the classification matrix was defined from the Tromp curve of the separator. The results of field experiments carried out at a pilot cement plant were used to identify the model's parameters. The retrospective process data pertaining to the operation of the pilot grinding circuit was employed to validate the model and define the process constraints. Through numerical simulation, the relationships between the controlled (fresh feed rate; separator cut size) and observed (fineness characteristics of cement; production rate; specific energy consumption) parameters of the circuit were defined. The analysis of the simulation results allowed formulation of the process control procedures with the objectives of decreasing the specific energy consumption of the mill, maintaining the targeted specific surface area of the final product, and governing the shape of its PSD.

Aitik is a large copper porphyry type deposit located in northern Sweden, currently exploited at an annual rate of approximately 45Mt. The ore's exceptionally low head grade of 0.22 % Cu and varying degrees of hardness across the entire deposit pose challenges to the two fully autogenous grinding lines, each of which comprises a 22.5 MW primary autogenous mill in series with a pebble mill. The variability in ore grindability frequently leads to fluctuations in mill throughput.  Within the framework of a geometallurgical approach, the present study investigated the relationships between ore grindability and modal mineralogy. For this purpose, drill core samples from different lithologies were subjected to Boliden AB's in-house grindability tests. This laboratory-scale autogenous grinding test generates a grindability index Ks mainly related to abrasion breakage, which is a significant breakage mechanism within autogenous mills. The test results suggested divergent degrees of grindability within and across the selected rock types. Furthermore, subsequent sieve analyses identified a relationship between the grindability index, PSD, and the proportions of fines generated by abrasive grinding. A combination of scanning electron microscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and X-ray fluorescence analyses was performed for the grinding products and bulk mineral samples. The resulting mineralogical and elemental properties were correlated to the parameters from the grindability tests. It was shown that the main mineral phases, such as plagioclase, quartz, and micas, correlate well with the grindability indices. Similar correlations were found regarding the sample's chemical composition, attributable to the main mineral phases. Derived from the previous findings, two exemplary linear empirical models for the calculation of grindability based on either mineral contents or chemical composition were presented. Careful examination of the mineralogical data revealed that the prevalent abrasion breakage mechanism leads to constant and continuous removal of mineral particles from the sample's surface. No indications for a preferential abrasion of any mineral phases were found.  A further inverse correlation between the sample's calculated average weighted Mohs hardness based on modal mineralogy and the grindability index Ks was established. Hence, it was proposed that a higher Mohs hardness results in a finer grinding product, oppositional to the Ks-values. Since Ks can be interpreted as a measure of abrasiveness, it can be stated that abrasiveness decreases with an increasing average sample hardness and vice versa.  Moreover, mineral liberation information provided by scanning electron microscopy was associated with the parameters mentioned earlier. It was determined that different degrees of mineral liberation were reached within specific particle size classes. The identified relationships between grindability, modal mineralogy, and element grades may help Boliden develop a predictive throughput model for Aitik to be integrated into the mine's block model. Based on this information, a strategy for smart blending could be developed, where run of mine material from ore blocks of varying grindabilities could be blended to attain the target plant throughput.

Efficient measurement methods for comminution properties are an important prerequisite for testing the variability of an ore deposit within the geometallurgical context. This involves the investigation of effects of mineralogy and mineral texture on the breakage of mineral particles. Breakage properties of mineral particles are crucial for the liberations of minerals and the energy required for that. For process optimization and control purposes, comminution indices are often used to map the variation of processing properties of an entire ore body (e.g. Bond work index). Within the geometallurgical approach this information is then taken up when modelling the process with varying feed properties. The main focus of this thesis work has been to develop a comprehensive geometallurgical testing framework, the Geometallurgical Comminution Test (GCT), which allows the time and cost efficient measurement of grinding indices and their linkage to mineralogical parameters (e.g. modal mineralogy or mineral texture, mineral liberation). In this context a small-scale grindability test has been developed that allows estimating the Bond work index from single pass grinding tests using small amounts of sample material. Verification of the evaluation method and validation was done with different mineral systems. For selected samples the mineral liberation distribution was investigated using automated mineralogy. By transferring the energy-size reduction relation to energy – liberation relation new term liberability has been established. As part of the experimental investigations, mineralogical parameters and mineral texture information were used for predicting breakage and liberation properties. Patterns for describing the breakage phenomena were established for a set of iron oxide ore samples. The determined breakage patterns indicated that the specific rate of mineral breakage slows down when reaching the grain size of mineral particles, thus allowing maximizing mineral liberation significantly without wasting mechanical energy. / CAMM

Le contexte global de réchauffement climatique et de fin programmée des carburants d'origine fossile a conduit depuis quelques décennies au développement des biocarburants. Les nombreux inconvénients liés à la première génération de biocarburants ont peu à peu donné naissance aux biocarburants de seconde génération dont l'avantage notable est d'utiliser la partie ligno-cellulosique des plantes. La principale voie de conversion envisagée consiste en une gazeification suivie d'une synthèse Fisher-Tropsch. Mais la dispersion énergétique et géographique de la biomasse ainsi que les nombreuses contraintes liées au processus de fabrication nécessitent la mise au point d'un préconditionnement adéquat. Le matériau utilisé devra en effet être homogène, concentré énergétiquement, stockable et facilement transportable. Il devra aussi être facilement broyable en vue de son injection sous pression dans les gazéifieurs. Une voie de prétraitement possible consiste à torréfier la biomasse. Le présent travail s'inscrit dans cette thématique puisqu'il a permis une caractérisation chimique, énergétique et mécanique du bois (Pinus pinaster et Quercus robur) traité thermiquement (T°C<300°C). Dans une première partie du travail, des analyses chimiques et énergétiques de bois traités thermiquement à différentes intensités ont été réalisées. Les résultats ont permis de quantifier la dégradation chimique et la densification énergétique lorsque l'intensité du traitement augmente. Il s'avère que la perte de masse est un excellent indicateur de ces modifications : des relations de prédiction de l'évolution de ces propriétés ont été établies. Un dispositif d'impact original a été développé dans la seconde partie du travail. Les résultats obtenus montrent une augmentation de la broyabilité du bois lorsque l'intensité de son traitement thermique augmente. Avec l'intensité du traitement, le bois perd d'abord sa résilience, puis son comportement fibreux.Cela permet la formation de fines particules particulièrement adaptées aux processus de fabrication des biocarburants de seconde génération. / Biofuels are developed worldwide since the few last decades to face two major problems of our societies: global warming and peak oil. Due to many disadvantages of the first generation of biofuel, a second generation is developed, whose major advantage is to use the lignocellulosic part of plants. One interesting way to produce this kind of biofuel is a gasification followed by a Fisher-Tropsch synthesis. However, a pretreatment is needed because raw biomass is not suitable for a direct use in gasifier. The role of the pretreatment is to homogenize product properties, to ease storage and transport, to concentrate the energy content. Moreover, its grindability has also to be improved since fine particles are required to supply the gasifier. The present work proposes a comprehensive chemical, energetic and mechanical characterization of wood (Pinus pinaster and Quercus robur) with different treatment intensities (T°C<300°C). The first part proposes a full set of chemical and energy analysis on heat-treated woods. The mass loss was confirmed as a synthetic indicator of the effect of treatment intensity on the degree of chemical degradation and energy concentration. Therefore, analytical expressions allowing the prediction of energy and chemical properties as a function of the overall mass loss are provided. The second part of the work consists in the development and use of a novel impact device. Results obtained in radial and tangential directions show that the heat treatment improves the wood grindability. As the treatment intensity increases, wood first losses its resilience first, followed by a loss of its fibrous behavior. The later eases its transformation into small particles suitable for gasification process.

La torréfaction est un traitement thermique à basse température (250 à 300 °C) en atmosphère inerte qui permet de modifier les propriétés de la biomasse. La biomasse torréfiée est alors plus dense énergétiquement, plus hydrophobe et plus fragile. Dans cette étude, un modèle numérique de torréfaction en four tournant à une dimension a été développé. Le transport des plaquettes de bois, les transferts thermiques, le séchage ainsi que les cinétiques de torréfaction ont été modélisés séparément. Après confrontation aux résultats expérimentaux, ces différents sous-modèles ont été assemblés dans un modèle global. Le modèle prédit alors l’évolution de la température et de la perte de masse des plaquettes le long du four. Les résultats numériques montrent une adéquation satisfaisante avec les valeurs obtenues lors d’expériences de torréfaction sur un four tournant pilote. Les solides torréfiés ont été analysés et leurs propriétés ont été corrélées à la perte de masse. Il a en particulier été démontré que l'énergie de broyage de la biomasse torréfiée était fortement réduite. / Torrefaction is a thermal treatment at low temperature (250-300°C) used to improve biomass properties. Torrefied biomass has a higher energy density, it is more hydrophobic and more brittle. In this study, a one-dimensional numerical model of torrefaction in a rotary kiln has been developed. The wood chips flow, the thermal transfers, the drying step and the torrefaction kinetics have been modelled separately. These submodels have been experimentally validated before being implemented together. The model can thus predict the temperature and the mass loss of wood chips along the kiln. These results are in good agreement with values obtained during torrefaction experiments in the pilot-scale rotary kiln. In parallel, torrefied biomass has been analysed in terms of composition, heating value and structural properties with emphasis on the decrease of grinding energy consumption.