I examined whether interpersonal similarity, an indicator of social closeness, influenced children’s epistemic trust in others’ testimony. Three- to 5-year-olds met two puppet informants, one of whom matched their preferences and physical attributes. Children were encouraged to request novel objects’ names from either informant, after which both informants provided conflicting labels for the unfamiliar objects. Physical and psychological commonalities with an informant differentially guided children’s learning preferences. Children subsequently heard the two informants differ in their accuracy when labeling familiar objects. For half the children the similar informant was accurate and the dissimilar informant inaccurate. Additionally, for half the children the inaccurate informant was blindfolded. Only 5-year-olds were more forgiving of the informant’s inaccuracy when blindfolded (i.e., justified), as compared to wearing a scarf (unjustified inaccuracy), and only for the dissimilar informant. These findings suggest that children’s reasoning about an informant’s state of knowledge varies with social closeness. Implications for children’s recall, mentalistic reasoning, and forgiving of mistakes are discussed. / text

The aim of the current thesis was to explore the possible link between System Justification Theory (SJT) and Terror Management Theory (TMT) in gender context and from the perspective of intergroup relations in a sample of Turkish university students. Having recently attracted research attention, the relation between the two theories is based on the effect of mortality salience (MS) on the tendency to justify the existing system. Accordingly, three research questions were investigated to see whether (1) ambivalent sexism toward women (hostile and benevolent sexism / HS and BS, respectively) and gender-group favoritism (on both explicit and implicit measures / expGF and impGF, respectively) were related to gender-specific system justification (GSJ), and whether (2) gender and (3) MS moderated the relation of GSJ to ambivalent sexism and gender-group favoritism. Based on the literature, it was hypothesized that (1) GSJ would predict HS, BS, expGF, and impGF, and that these predictions would be stronger (2) among women than among men and (3) when mortality is made salient as compared to when it is not. The hypotheses were tested with 185 participants (86 men, 99 women) who completed a questionnaire package including the demographic information form, GSJ Scale, MS manipulation, Ambivalent Sexism Inventory, and a scale measuring expGF along with a computer-administered task for impGF. The results revealed that higher levels of GSJ predicted higher levels of benevolent and hostile attitudes toward women as well as higher levels of explicit ingroup favoritism and lower levels of favoritism toward women. Only GSJ &ndash / HS and GSJ &ndash / expGF relationships were moderated by gender. The moderating role of MS was not observed in any of the four relationships. However, GSJ scores were found to be unevenly distributed across MS conditions, thereby, casting doubt on the reliability of the results concerning the moderating role of MS. The findings, as well as the contributions and limitations of the study, were discussed.

Vocational rehabilitation (VR) is a program that provides individualized and supportive services to assist individuals with disabilities in obtaining and maintaining employment compatible with their skills, abilities, and interests. Previous research has shown that people with disabilities are at risk for experiencing discrimination in multiple stages of the rehabilitation process. The primary purpose of this study was to explore if recommendations for hypothetical rehabilitation services by rehabilitation counseling students were influenced by (a) the consumer's race, (b) causal attribution of disability, (c) participant's race, and (d) the interaction of the counselor's race and consumer's race. A 2 x 2 x 3 Factorial design was utilized and results from this study revealed that recommendations for rehabilitation services were not influenced by the consumer's race, participant's race, or the interaction of the counselor's race and consumer's race. The findings did reveal that a hypothetical consumer who had an internal cause of disability was more likely to receive fewer recommendations for rehabilitation services then a consumer with an external cause. Discussion and implications are provided.

Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:36:39Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 RocheleVCBM_TESE.pdf: 2095393 bytes, checksum: 3e32df9736d15e4a91bb5cabe3afd11b (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-24 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Human cooperation is fundamentally affected by reciprocal exchange, but it is also remarkably common on the context of large and symbolically marked in-groups, which promote cooperation through the feeling of belonging to a group. In this thesis, two empirical articles were produced in order to investigate how human cooperation is affected by factors such as reciprocity, in-group behavior, in-group markers and gender. We investigated this subject through the administration of online games consisting of token donations, on which the subjects faced virtual players controlled by the experiment. We found that cooperative behavior is strongly influenced by reciprocity, and it is also affected by the in-group behavior, observed on the context of the social variables place of birth, ethnicity, and religions, once all of them acted as in-group markers. The subjects? in-group behavior was enhanced when they played with generous in-group opponents, but weakened when their in-group opponents were non-generous. It was also found that cooperation is not affected by gender, but men and women cooperated in different ways under the influence of reciprocity and in-group behavior. Women are much more reciprocal on their cooperative behavior and men are less willing to cooperate with outgroupers, even when they act generously. The overall results contribute to a better understanding of the adaptive value of cooperation, reciprocity and in-group behavior on the solution of important challenges through the human evolutionary history / A coopera??o humana, al?m ser fundamentada pelas trocas rec?procas, desenvolve-se notadamente dentro de grupos extensos e simbolicamente marcados, nos quais existe a presen?a de marcadores de grupos, elementos que promovem a coopera??o por indicar pertin?ncia compartilhada. Na presente tese de doutorado, foram produzidos dois artigos emp?ricos que investigaram como a coopera??o humana se organiza diante dos fatores reciprocidade, comportamento de favorecimento de grupos, influ?ncia de marcadores de grupo e sexo dos indiv?duos. O m?todo de investiga??o consistiu no emprego de jogos online de doa??o de fichas, nos quais os sujeitos interagiam com jogadores virtuais controlados pelo experimento. Em linhas gerais, verificamos que o comportamento cooperativo sofre forte influ?ncia da reciprocidade. A coopera??o tamb?m ? afetada pelo favorecimento de grupos, comportamento que emergiu sob a influ?ncia das vari?veis naturalidade, etnia e religi?o, as quais atuaram como marcadores de grupo. O comportamento de favorecimento de grupos dos sujeitos mostrou-se amplificado na condi??o em que os parceiros de grupo cooperaram de forma generosa e enfraquecido na condi??o em que os parceiros de grupo foram pouco generosos. Verificamos tamb?m que a coopera??o n?o ? afetada pelo sexo dos indiv?duos. Por outro lado, homens e mulheres cooperam de forma diferenciada sob a influ?ncia da reciprocidade e do comportamento de favorecimento de grupos: as mulheres apresentam um perfil mais rec?proco na coopera??o e os homens cooperam pouco com os indiv?duos que n?o pertencem ao seu grupo, mesmo quando estes s?o generosos. Os resultados dos trabalhos, tomados em conjunto, contribuem para a compreens?o do valor adaptativo da coopera??o, da reciprocidade e do comportamento de favorecimento de grupos na solu??o de desafios na hist?ria evolutiva do homem

Due to demographic changes (longevity, falling birth rates) the workforce is aging and therefore, more and more workers will potentially experience ageism (i.e., discrimination based on age) at work; however, ageism is not limited to older workers and can concern workers of any age. This dissertation deals with attitudes and stereotypes fostering ageism and demonstrates the strong presence of work-related ageist attitudes and stereotypes in a series of three studies. In the first study, work-related age stereotypes were differentiated by dimensions (performance, adaptability, reliability, and warmth) and studied within an age-diverse sample of nurses. Older nurses were evaluated more positively on reliability, warmth, and competence, and younger nurses were evaluated more positively on performance and adaptability. In-group favoritism was observed for all age groups confirming social identity theory. Contact quality was the strongest potential predictor of age stereotypes, leading to the recommendation of fostering good contact between workers of different ages. Extending the explicit measurement in the first study, the second study applied both explicit and implicit measures (Implicit Association Test, IAT) to study age attitudes and age stereotypes at the workplace and their variability across three groups: students, workers, and older adults. The attribute stimulus material in the IAT was manipulated such that cross-category associations arose. Regardless of group and manipulation of the stimulus material, older workers were always evaluated more negatively according to the IAT results, thereby supporting the stereotype embodiment theory. The explicit measures of general age preferences showed no clear age preferences. However, despite slight in-group biases, more differentiated explicit measures of work-related age stereotypes revealed clear age stereotypes in all samples that were similar to the first study: younger workers were favored in terms of adaptability and performance; older workers were favored in terms of competence, reliability, and warmth. By solely looking at the explicit age attitudes, age stereotypes in the workplace would have been trivialized, thus, it is important to apply explicit and implicit measures for studies in the field of ageism. The third study examined the influence of explicit and implicit age cues in job applications on hypothetical hiring decisions. Discriminatory behavior was observed being triggered by both explicit and implicit age cues. Older applicants were less likely to be hired, as were applicants with an implicit old profile compared to an implicit age-neutral or young profile. An anti-discrimination prompt led to a reduction of the age bias, which is encouraging for human resources trainings. This dissertation shows that age stereotypes in the workplace are still highly prevalent. Explicit and implicit measures should be combined when conducting research on ageism to gain a comprehensive picture. By raising awareness to ageism, discriminatory behavior can be reduced.:Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 8 List of Tables 10 List of Figures 11 1. Synopsis 12 1.1 Introduction 12 1.2 Definition of Workplace-Ageism 13 1.3 Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 14 1.4 Workplace Inequalities 17 1.5 Negative Effects of Ageism in the Workplace 18 1.6 Fighting Ageism 21 1.7 Legal Regulations 24 1.8 Theories on Age Stereotype Formation 26 1.8.1 Social Identity Theory 28 1.8.2 Stereotype Embodiment Theory 29 1.8.3 Mere Exposure Effect 29 1.9 Research Objectives 30 2. Dimensions of Work-Related Age Stereotypes and In-Group Favoritism 34 2.1 Abstract 35 2.2 Introduction 36 2.2.1 Ageism and Age Stereotypes at Work 36 2.2.2 Age Stereotypes About Older and Younger Workers 37 2.2.3 In-Group Favoritism, Effects of Social Contact, and Self-Perception of Aging 41 2.3 Method 43 2.3.1 Participants 43 2.3.2 Measures 43 2.4 Results 45 2.4.1 Analyses of Age Stereotypes and Dimensions (Hypotheses 1 and 2) 48 2.4.2 Correlates of Age Stereotypes (Hypothesis 3) 51 2.5 Discussion 56 3. Implicit and Explicit Measurement of Work-Related Age Attitudes and Age Stereotypes 62 3.1 Abstract 63 3.2 Introduction 64 3.3 Theoretical Background 66 3.3.1 Explicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 66 3.3.2 Implicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 69 3.3.3 The Implicit Association Test 70 3.3.4 Age IAT and Correlation With Explicit Attitudes 74 3.3.5 The Present Study 74 3.4 Study 1A – Students 76 3.4.1 Method 76 3.4.2 Results 79 3.4.3 Discussion 83 3.5 Study 1B – Older Adults 84 3.5.1 Method 84 3.5.2 Results 84 3.5.3 Discussion 85 3.6 Study 1C – Active Workers and Semantic Influences in the IAT 86 3.6.1 Method 86 3.6.2 Results 87 3.6.3 Discussion 88 3.7 Overall Calculation 89 3.7.1 IAT 90 3.7.2 Explicit Measures 91 3.7.3 Implicit-Explicit Correlations 94 3.7.4 Discussion 94 3.8 General Discussion 94 3.8.1 Practical Implications 99 3.8.2 Limitations and Future Directions 100 3.8.3 Conclusion 100 4. Implicit and Explicit Age Cues Influence the Evaluation of Job Applications 102 4.1 Abstract 103 4.2 Introduction 104 4.2.1 Explicit Age Cues 105 4.2.2 Implicit Age Cues 107 4.2.3 Interventions for Reducing Age Discrimination in Evaluation Job Applications 109 4.2.4 The Present Study 110 4.3 Study 1 – Implicit Age Cues and Different Hiring Goals 111 4.3.1 Method 111 4.3.2 Results 115 4.3.3 Discussion 117 4.4 Study 2 – Implicit and Explicit Age Information 119 4.4.1 Method 119 4.4.2 Results 120 4.4.3 Discussion 123 4.5 Study 3 – Anti-Discrimination Prompting 124 4.5.1 Method 124 4.5.2 Results 125 4.5.3 Discussion 131 4.6 General Discussion 132 4.6.1 Limitations 136 4.6.2 Implications 137 4.6.3 Conclusion 138 5. General Discussion 139 5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings and Discussion 139 5.2 Limitations 143 5.3 Contributions, Practical Implications, and Future Directions 145 5.4 Conclusion 149 References 151 Appendix 171 Curriculum Vitae 173 List of Publications 175 Declaration 176 / Vor dem Hintergrund des demografischen Wandels (Langlebigkeit, sinkende Geburtenraten) und der verbundenen Alterung der Arbeitskräfte, ist das Thema der Altersdiskriminierung am Arbeitsplatz von höchster Relevanz. Durch die Veränderung der Altersstrukturen sind potentiell immer mehr Arbeitskräfte von Altersdiskriminierung betroffen, wobei keine Beschränkung auf eine bestimmte Altersgruppe besteht. Die vorliegende Dissertation widmet sich den Einstellungen und Stereotypen die zu Altersdiskriminierung am Arbeitsplatz beitragen und demonstriert die Präsenz von negativen, arbeitsplatzbezogenen Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotypen in drei Studien. In der ersten Studie erfolgte eine Differenzierung von arbeitsplatzbezogenen Altersstereotypen nach Dimensionen (Performanz, Anpassungsfähigkeit, Zuverlässigkeit, Wärme). Pflegekräfte schätzten ältere Arbeitskräfte als zuverlässiger, wärmer und kompetenter, und jüngere Arbeitskräfte als leistungs- und anpassungsfähiger ein. Entsprechend der sozialen Identitätstheorie favorisierten alle Altersgruppen ihre eigene Gruppe. Kontaktqualität war der stärkste potentielle Prädiktor für Altersstereotype. Indem ArbeitgeberInnen guten Austausch zwischen MitarbeiterInnen unterschiedlichen Alters fördern, kann negativen Altersstereotypen vorgebeugt werden. In Ergänzung zur expliziten Messung der ersten Studie, erfolgte in der zweiten Studie zusätzlich die implizite Erhebung von Alterseinstellungen mittels eines impliziten Assoziationstests in drei Stichproben (Studenten, Arbeitskräfte, ältere Erwachsene). Das Stimulusmaterial des impliziten Assoziationstests wurde so manipuliert, dass kategorienübergreifende Assoziationen auftraten. Unabhängig von der Stichprobe und der Manipulation des Stimulusmaterials wurden ältere Arbeitskräfte in Übereinstimmung mit der Stereotype Embodiment Theorie im impliziten Assoziationstest stets negativer evaluiert. Während die globale Messung der Alterspräferenz keine Bevorzugung einer Altersgruppe ergab, zeigte die differenzierte explizite Messung das gleiche Bild wie in der ersten Studie: Ältere Arbeitskräfte wurden in Bezug auf Kompetenz, Zuverlässigkeit und Wärme favorisiert, während jüngere Arbeitskräfte im Hinblick auf Performanz und Anpassungsfähigkeit besser bewertet wurden. Da die reine explizite Messung zu einem verzerrten Bild, im Sinne einer Trivialisierung, der arbeitsplatzbezogenen Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotype geführt hätte, wird die kombinierte Anwendung von expliziten und impliziten Maßen für Studien im Bereich der Altersdiskriminierung empfohlen. Die dritte Studie untersuchte den Einfluss von expliziten und impliziten Altershinweisen in Bewerbungen auf die Einstellungswahrscheinlichkeit in einem hypothetischen Bewerbungsverfahren. Explizite und implizite Altershinweise führten zu diskriminierendem Verhalten. Die StudienteilnehmerInnen waren weniger bereit, ältere BewerberInnen und BewerberInnen mit einem implizit alten Profil im Vergleich zu einem altersneutralen oder jungen Profil hypothetisch einzustellen. Ein Anti-Diskriminierungshinweis führte zu einer deutlichen Reduktion der Altersdiskriminierung, was vor allem für den Personalbereich von Bedeutung ist. Die Dissertation demonstriert die hohe Prävalenz von Altersstereotypen am Arbeitsplatz. Zur umfassenden Erfassung von Alterseinstellungen und Altersstereotypen sollten explizite und implizite Messmethoden kombiniert werden. Bewusstseinsbildung kann altersdiskriminierendes Verhalten reduzieren.:Acknowledgements 5 Abstract 6 Zusammenfassung 8 List of Tables 10 List of Figures 11 1. Synopsis 12 1.1 Introduction 12 1.2 Definition of Workplace-Ageism 13 1.3 Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 14 1.4 Workplace Inequalities 17 1.5 Negative Effects of Ageism in the Workplace 18 1.6 Fighting Ageism 21 1.7 Legal Regulations 24 1.8 Theories on Age Stereotype Formation 26 1.8.1 Social Identity Theory 28 1.8.2 Stereotype Embodiment Theory 29 1.8.3 Mere Exposure Effect 29 1.9 Research Objectives 30 2. Dimensions of Work-Related Age Stereotypes and In-Group Favoritism 34 2.1 Abstract 35 2.2 Introduction 36 2.2.1 Ageism and Age Stereotypes at Work 36 2.2.2 Age Stereotypes About Older and Younger Workers 37 2.2.3 In-Group Favoritism, Effects of Social Contact, and Self-Perception of Aging 41 2.3 Method 43 2.3.1 Participants 43 2.3.2 Measures 43 2.4 Results 45 2.4.1 Analyses of Age Stereotypes and Dimensions (Hypotheses 1 and 2) 48 2.4.2 Correlates of Age Stereotypes (Hypothesis 3) 51 2.5 Discussion 56 3. Implicit and Explicit Measurement of Work-Related Age Attitudes and Age Stereotypes 62 3.1 Abstract 63 3.2 Introduction 64 3.3 Theoretical Background 66 3.3.1 Explicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 66 3.3.2 Implicitly Measured Age Stereotypes in the Workplace 69 3.3.3 The Implicit Association Test 70 3.3.4 Age IAT and Correlation With Explicit Attitudes 74 3.3.5 The Present Study 74 3.4 Study 1A – Students 76 3.4.1 Method 76 3.4.2 Results 79 3.4.3 Discussion 83 3.5 Study 1B – Older Adults 84 3.5.1 Method 84 3.5.2 Results 84 3.5.3 Discussion 85 3.6 Study 1C – Active Workers and Semantic Influences in the IAT 86 3.6.1 Method 86 3.6.2 Results 87 3.6.3 Discussion 88 3.7 Overall Calculation 89 3.7.1 IAT 90 3.7.2 Explicit Measures 91 3.7.3 Implicit-Explicit Correlations 94 3.7.4 Discussion 94 3.8 General Discussion 94 3.8.1 Practical Implications 99 3.8.2 Limitations and Future Directions 100 3.8.3 Conclusion 100 4. Implicit and Explicit Age Cues Influence the Evaluation of Job Applications 102 4.1 Abstract 103 4.2 Introduction 104 4.2.1 Explicit Age Cues 105 4.2.2 Implicit Age Cues 107 4.2.3 Interventions for Reducing Age Discrimination in Evaluation Job Applications 109 4.2.4 The Present Study 110 4.3 Study 1 – Implicit Age Cues and Different Hiring Goals 111 4.3.1 Method 111 4.3.2 Results 115 4.3.3 Discussion 117 4.4 Study 2 – Implicit and Explicit Age Information 119 4.4.1 Method 119 4.4.2 Results 120 4.4.3 Discussion 123 4.5 Study 3 – Anti-Discrimination Prompting 124 4.5.1 Method 124 4.5.2 Results 125 4.5.3 Discussion 131 4.6 General Discussion 132 4.6.1 Limitations 136 4.6.2 Implications 137 4.6.3 Conclusion 138 5. General Discussion 139 5.1 Summary of Empirical Findings and Discussion 139 5.2 Limitations 143 5.3 Contributions, Practical Implications, and Future Directions 145 5.4 Conclusion 149 References 151 Appendix 171 Curriculum Vitae 173 List of Publications 175 Declaration 176

廣告的目的，是用來與「目標消費者」進行訊息溝通與傳達，而不是自我藝術美感的創作與表達。廣告的內容，是將「廣告訊息」，藉由編碼，正確的傳遞給目標消費者（閱聽人）。而有說服力的廣告，就會是可以幫助銷售的好廣告。在消費者對於廣告解讀的論述中，出現了許多影響訊息說服與溝通的閱聽人的心理意識，包括了消費者的特質、生活型態、價值觀，文化、社會認同、社會地位、群體同儕、品味、成就、以及夢想等。越能以這些因素，引起閱聽人共鳴，就能夠越容易完成訊息傳遞的目的。 而這些心理意識，就是「內團體意識」中，區分內、外團體的歸因要素。有了情感上的歸屬，訊息傳遞就可以比較容易。電視廣告在「內團體意識」的包裝下，消費者（想要）及（接受）的心理因素不斷的被提到，被群體「認同」的需求，一再的被滿足，期望一再的被塑造。隨著「內團體意識」的表現，在經歷了認知、情感、行為三個階段後，溝通目的才開始清楚的完成。 　　為瞭解「內團體意識」如何建構電視廣告訊息？有何表現上的可歸納的操作指標，本研究以內容分析法，選擇自1980年～現今2009年之間，具有「內團體意識」表現方式的電視廣告影片110支，以年代別及FCB模式商品分類別兩種方式，進行包括表達元素、表達形式、背景歸因、社會歸因、文化歸因、生活風格歸因、個體歸因等相關要素的表現分析與研究。 研究整理後發現，「內團體意識」在電視廣告訊息的表現中，以「情感認同」為核心，藉由「滿足需求」、「消費描述」及「建構想像」做為基本創意概念。另外，電視廣告片中大多必要且慣用「內團體意識」，甚至在許多的電視廣告中，會有一個或多個內團體意識的歸因元素同時存在。部份內團體意識，只是創意與橋段的表現，與原本要訴求對象的「團體意識」並不會衝突。最後也發現，似乎越是特殊的商品或勞務，就越需要使用「內團體意識」，來做為電視廣告中重要溝通核心。 關鍵字：內團體意識、廣告表現、團體認同、廣告訴求、團體偏私、核心概念、訊息解讀、情感認同、歸因要素、背景歸因、社會歸因、文化歸因、生活型態、個體歸因、廣告創意、訊息策略、說服理論。 / The intention of advertisement is to provide a message to the targeted consumer and communicate rather than a presentation of individual expression and creativity. The core meaning of an advertisement is to transfer a key message embedded with advertising means successfully to its target receiver; furthermore, an outstanding advertisement will be able to fulfill the intention of marketing and sales. An exposition regarding consumer advertisement decoding denoted numerous variables that potentially alter the protocol of message receiver and his way of interpreting a message. This includes an individual consumer’s characteristic, lifestyle, value, culture, social acceptance, social status, social circle, taste, accomplishment, and vision. Messages embedded with such variables tend to create sympathy between the message and the receiver; as a result, creates a psychological bonding in which grows more powerful whenever a new variable reaches its echo with the receiver. Such psychological behaviors are the essential attributes differentiating the in-group consciousness from out-group consciousness of an individual. With a sentimental bonding, messages can be transmitted more accurately and efficiently. Television advertisement exercise constant implicit of this in-group conscious behavior, by repeating intimation of “desire” and “acceptance” to the receiver, continuous fulfillment of ones the necessitate aspiration, and constant creation of expectation. As the realization of the in-group consciousness continues, the purpose of communication is only fully accomplished after an individual have gone through acknowledgement, emotion, and into action. To understand how in-group consciousness establishes and executes television ad messages and its protocols. This research suggested using content analysis; by selecting 110 Television ad clips that possesses in-group consciousness implementation in between 1980 to 2009 and analyze them in two ways–era differentiation and product type under FCB protocol. This study focused on observing and analyzing the performance of variables such as expressing element, expressing form, background, social, cultural, lifestyle, individual attributes, and other related elements. 　　After the compilation of results, this research suggests that most television ads exercise in-group consciousness intentionally to create a common attribute among its listeners. By establishing sensational acceptance as the core criteria, advertisements then elaborates on other attributes such as satisfying needs, consuming behavior, and image establishment to create the basic concept of creativity. Furthermore, this research shows that a large number of advertisements exercise one or more in-group consciousness attribute within them. Some of the in-group consciousness exercised in ads is portrayed simply due to creative and plotting needs and doesn’t actually create a conflict with the central in-group consciously. This research also found that the more unique or special a product or service is, the more dependant its advertisement will be on in-group consciousness. Keywords: in-group consciousness, advertisement performance, group acceptance, advertisement requirements, group favoritism, core concept, message interpretation, emotional acceptance, attributes factor, background attribute, social attribute, cultural attribute, lifestyle, individual attribute, advertisement creativity, message tactic, persuading theory.