Esta dissertação apresenta um projeto de um dispositivo para levantar dados característicos de materiais submetidos às altas taxas de deformação, dispositivo este que leva o nome do seu idealizador o engenheiro Inglês Sir Bertram Hopkinson. Mais especificamente, esta dissertação está inseparavelmente ligada ao desenvolvimento de um embalado para transporte de elementos radioativos como sendo uma das partes do escopo geral, de um projeto da CAPES em convênio com o Centro de Ciência e Tecnologia de Materiais - CCTM do, Instituto de Pesquisas Energéticas e Nucleares IPEN - CNEN/SP, autarquia associada à Universidade de São Paulo. O desenvolvimento do dispositivo faz parte do escopo de obtenção, e levantamento dos dados necessários para o projeto, e a construção do embalado. Esta dissertação versa sobre a concepção mecânica do dispositivo, importante, dividida em duas partes, dimensionamento das barras, que seriam a barra de impacto, a barra de entrada, e a barra de saída, e o dimensionamento do dispositivo de impacto. O dimensionamento das barras envolve conhecimentos do conceito de ondas elásticas em meios sólidos para que o comprimento das barras seja estimado de forma a servir de guia das ondas elásticas, que provocarão a deformação no corpo de prova, e possibilite a boa leitura dessas ondas para análise dos dados. O dispositivo de impacto, este tem que ser robusto o suficiente para produzir a onda de tensão que deforme o corpo de prova, mas não para deformar plasticamente as barras, que terão que continuar durante todo o teste dentro do regime elástico. / This dissertation presents a design of a device to collect characteristic data of materials submitted to the high strain rates, device that takes the name of its idealizer the English engineer Sir Bertram Hopkinson. More specifically, this dissertation is inseparably linked to the development of a package for the transport of radioactive elements as part of the general scope of a CAPES project in partnership with the Materials Science and Technology Center (CCTM), Nuclear and Energy Research Institute IPEN - CNEN / SP, autarchy associated with the University of São Paulo. The development of the device is part of the scope of procurement, and collection of data required for the design, and the construction of the packaging. This dissertation deals with the mechanical design of the device, important, divided into two parts, dimensioning of the bars, which would be the impact bar, the input and output bars and the design of the impact device. The sizing of the bars involves knowledge of the concept of elastic waves in solid media so that the length of the bars is estimated in order to serve as a guide for the elastic waves, which will cause deformation in the test body, and enable a good reading of these waves for analysis of the data. The impact device has to be robust enough to produce the stress wave that deforms the test body but not to deform the bars plastically, which will have to continue throughout the test within the elastic regime.

Objetivo: investigar a associação entre estresse no trabalho e a autopercepção de saúde bucal. Método: Os dados analisados foram obtidos por meio de questionário de autopreenchimento de 3253 funcionários técnicos administrativos da Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro um Estudo do Pró-Saúde. O estresse no trabalho foi medido através de um questionário elaborado por Karasek 1970 e reduzido por Theorell 1988. O instrumento é composto pelas seguintes dimensões: alta exigência no trabalho (alta demanda e baixo controle), baixa exigência (baixa demanda e alto controle), trabalho ativo (altos níveis de demanda e controle) e passivo (baixos níveis de demanda e controle). Autopercepção de saúde bucal foi obtida pela pergunta: “De um modo geral, como você considera o seu estado de saúde bucal (dentes e gengiva)?”, com opções de resposta variando entre, “muito bom” e “muito ruim”. Para a análise dos dados utilizou-se regressão logística ordinal, posteriormente ajustada para três blocos de variáveis: 1) saúde bucal (perda de dentes e dor de dentes nas duas últimas semanas) e uso e utilização serviço de saúde (frequência de visita ao dentista) 2) sociodemográficas (idade, sexo, escolaridade e renda) e 3) comportamentais em saúde (fumo e autopercepção de saúde geral). Resultados: Trabalhadores expostos à alta exigência e pouco controle no trabalho (OR=1,67; IC95%: 1,38-2,03) e ao trabalho passivo (OR=1,31; IC95%: 1,12-1,54), tiveram maiores chances de perceber pior saúde bucal, quando comparados àqueles expostos a baixa exigência no trabalho, não se observando associação com aqueles expostos ao trabalho ativo (OR=1,05; IC95%: 0,90-1,23). Entretanto, no modelo de regressão múltipla estas estimativas reduziram em magnitude e perderam significância estatística, a saber: alta exigência (OR=1,19; IC95%: 0,95-1,49), trabalho passivo (OR=1,09; IC95%: 0,91-1,31). Conclusão: Funcionários expostos a alta exigência no trabalho apresentaram pior saúde bucal autorreferida (modelo bruto e ajustado para os três blocos de variáveis) que parece ser parcialmente explicada pelas comportamentais em saúde, presença de problemas de saúde bucal (dor e perda dentária) e uso de serviços odontológicos com uma frequência maior do que uma vez ao ano. / Objective: To investigate the association between occupational stress and oral health self-perception. Method: Data obtained through a self-completion questionnaire with 3253 administrative technicians from a university in Rio de Janeiro, in the Pro-Health Study, were analyzed. Occupational stress was measured through a questionnaire prepared by Karasek, 1970, and reduced by Theorell, 1988. Oral health self-perception was obtained through the question: “In general, how do you consider your oral health state (teeth and gums)?”, with answer options ranging from “very good” to “very bad”. For data analysis, ordinal logistic regression was used, subsequently adjusted to three blocks of variables: 1) oral health (loss of teeth and toothache in the past two weeks) and use of the health service (frequency at which the dentist is attended); 2) socio-demographic (age, sex, schooling, and income); and 3) health-related behavior (smoking and general health self-perception). Results: Workers exposed to high strain and little control at work (OR=1.67; 95%CI: 1.38-2.03) and to passive work (OR=1.31; 95%CI: 1.12-1.54) had greater chances of perceiving worse oral health, when compared with those exposed to high-strain work, and no association was observed with those exposed to active work (OR=1.05; 95%CI: 0.90-1.23). However, in the multiple regression model, these estimates declined in magnitude and lost statistical significance, namely: high strain (OR=1.19; 95%CI: 0.95-1.49), passive work (OR=1.09; 95%CI: 0.91-1.31). Conclusion: Workers exposed to high-strain work presented worse self-reported oral health (raw model and adjusted to the three blocks of variables), which seems to be partially explained by health-related behavior, presence of oral health problems (toothache and dental loss), and use of dental services at greater frequency than once a year.

As one category of energetic materials, impact-initiated reactive materials are able to release a high amount of stored chemical energy under high strain rate impact loading, and are used extensively in civil and military applications. In general, polymers are introduced as binder materials to trap the reactive metal powders inside, and also act as an oxidizing agent for the metal ingredient. Since critical attention has been paid on the metal / metal reaction, only a few types of polymer / reactive metal interactions have been studied in the literature. With the higher requirement of materials resistant to different thermal and mechanical environments, the understanding and characterization of polymer / reactive metal interactions are in great demand. In this study, PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) 7A / Ti (Titanium) composites were studied under high strain rates by utilizing the Taylor impact and SHPB tests. Taylor impact tests with different impact velocities, sample dimensions and sample configurations were conducted on the composite, equipped with a high-speed camera for tracking transient images during the sudden process. SHPB and Instron tests were carried out to obtain the stress vs. strain curves of the composite under a wide range of strain rates, the result of which were also utilized for fitting the constitutive relations of the composite based on the modified Johnson-Cook strength model. Thermal analyses by DTA tests under different flow rates accompanied with XRD identification were conducted to study the reaction mechanism between PTFE 7A and Ti when only heat was provided. Numerical simulations on Taylor impact tests and microstructural deformations were also performed to validate the constitutive model built for the composite system, and to investigate the possible reaction mechanism between two components. The results obtained from the high strain rate tests, thermal analyses and numerical simulations were combined to provide a systematic study on the reaction mechanism between PTFE and Ti in the composite systems, which will be instructive for future energetic studies on other polymer / reactive metal systems.

When producing thermomechanical pulps (TMP), wood chips and fiber material are loaded mechanically in a disc-refiner to separate the fibers and to make them flexible. In the process, much of the energy supplied is transferred to the fiber material through cyclic compression, shear and friction processes. Therefore, compression and friction characteristics are needed in order to gain a better grasp of the forces acting during refining. To this end, in this thesis, the compressive and frictional behaviors of wood were investigated under simulated chip refining conditions (i.e., hot saturated steam, high strain rate compression, and high sliding speed). Two new, custom-designed, experimental setups were developed and used. The equipment used for compression testing was based on the split Hopkinson pressure bar (SHPB) technique and the friction tester was a pin-on-disc type of tribotester (wear rig). Both pieces of equipment allow a testing environment of hot saturated steam.   In the wood–steel friction investigation, the influence of the steam temperature (100-170°C) was of primary interest. The wood species chosen for the friction tests were spruce (Picea abies), pine (Pinus sylvestris, Pinus radiata), and birch (Betula verrucosa). When performing measurements in the lower-temperature region (100-130°C), the friction coefficients registered for the softwoods were generally low and surface properties such as lubrica­tion were suggested to have a great influence on the results; however, in the higher-tempera­ture region (~130 -170°C), the friction coefficients of all investigated wood species were probably determined by bulk properties to a much greater extent. When most of the wood extractives had been removed from the specimens, testing results revealed distinct peaks in friction at similar temperatures, as the internal friction of the different wood species are known to have their maxima at ~110–130°C. One suggested explanation of these friction peaks is that reduced lubrication enabled energy to dissipate into the bulk material, causing particularly high friction at the temperature at which internal damping of the material was greatest. During the friction measurements in the higher-temperature region, the specimens of the different wood species also started to lose fibers (i.e., produce wear debris) at different characteristic temperatures, as indicated by peaks in the coefficient of friction. In refining, the generally lower shives content of pine TMP than of spruce TMP could partly be explained by a lower wear initiation temperature in the pine species.   Wood stiffness is known to decrease with temperature, when measured at low strain rates. The results presented in this thesis can confirm a similar behavior for high strain rate compression. The compressive strain registered during impulsive loading (using a modified split Hopkinson equipment) increased with temperature; because strain rate also increased with temperature. Accordingly, the strain rates should determine the strain magnitudes also in a refiner, since the impulsive loads in a refiner are of similar type. Larger strains would thus be achieved when refining at high temperatures. The results achieved in the compression tests were also considered in relation to refining parameters such as plate clearance and refining intensity, parameters that could be discussed in light of the stress–strain relations derived from the high strain rate measurements. Trials recorded using high-speed photography demonstrated that the wood relaxation was very small in the investigated time frame ~6 ms. As well, in TMP refining the wood material has little time to relax, i.e., ~0.04–0.5 ms in a large single disc refiner. The results presented here are therefore more suitable for comparison with the impulsive loads arising in a refiner than are the results of any earlier study. It can therefore be concluded that the modified SHPB testing technique combined with high-speed photography is well suited for studying the dynamic behavior of wood under conditions like those prevalent in a TMP system.

In an automotive crash event, hot stamped, die quenched martensitic structural components have been shown to provide excellent intrusion resistance. These alloys exhibit only limited ductility, however, which may limit the overall impact performance of the component. The introduction of lower strength and more ductile “tailored” properties within some regions of a hot stamped component has the potential to improve impact performance. One approach being applied to achieving such tailored properties is through locally controlling the cooling rate within the stamping die. The primary motivation for the current work is to understand the role of cooling rate on the as-quenched mechanical response of tailored hot stampings, which has required characterization of the high strain rate mechanical behaviour of tailored hot stamped boron steel. The effect of cooling rate and resulting microstructure on the as-quenched mechanical behavior of USIBOR® 1500P boron steel at strain rates between 10-3 and 103 s-1 was investigated. Specimens quenched at rates above the critical cooling rate (~27 °C/s) exhibited a fully martensitic microstructure with a UTS of ~1,450 MPa. Sub-critical cooling rates, in the range 14°C/s to 50 °C/s, resulted in as-quenched microstructures ranging between bainitic to martensitic, respectively. Tension tests revealed that predominantly bainitic material conditions (14 °C/s cooling rate) exhibited a lower UTS of 816 MPa compared to 1,447 MPa for the fully martensitic material condition (50 °C/s cooling rate) with a corresponding increase in elongation from 0.10 to 0.15 for the bainitic condition. The reduction in area was 70% for the bainitic material condition and 58% for the martensitic material conditions which implied that a tailored region consisting of bainite may be a desirable candidate for implementation within a hot stamped component. The strain rate sensitivity was shown to be moderate for all of the as-quenched material conditions and the measured flow stress curves were used to develop a strain rate sensitive constitutive model, the “Tailored Crash Model (TCM)”. The TCM accurately reproduced the measured flow stress curves as a function of effective plastic strain, strain rate and Vickers hardness (or area fraction of martensite and bainite). The effect of deformation during quenching and the associated shift in the CCT diagram on the subsequent constitutive response was also examined for this material. Specimens were simultaneously quenched and deformed at various cooling rates to achieve a range of as-quenched microstructures that included ferrite in addition to martensite and bainite. Tensile tests conducted on these specimens at strain rates ranging from 0.003 s-1 to ~80 s-1 revealed that the presence of ferrite resulted in an increase in uniform elongation and n-value which increased overall energy absorption for a given hardness level. The strain rate sensitivity was shown to be moderate for all of the as-quenched material conditions and the TCM constitutive model was extended to account for the presence of ferrite. This extended constitutive model, the “Tailored Crash Model II (TCM II)”, has been shown to predict flow stress as a function of effective plastic strain, strain rate and area fraction of martensite, bainite and ferrite. As a validation exercise, uniaxial tension test simulations of specimens extracted from the transition zone of a hot stamped lab-scale B-pillar with tailored properties [1] were performed. The measured hardness distribution along the gauge length of the tensile specimens was used as input for the TCM constitutive model to define the element constitutive response used in the finite element (FE) models. The measured stress versus strain response and strain distribution during loading (measured using digital image correlation) was in excellent agreement with the FE models and thus validated the TCM constitutive model developed in this work. Validation of the TCM II version of the model is left for future work.

The effects of reactive metal particles on the microstructure and mechanical properties of epoxy-based composites are investigated in this work. To examine these effects castings of epoxy reinforced with 20-40 vol.% Al and 0-10 vol.% Ni were prepared, while varying the aluminum particle size from 5 to 50 microns and holding the nickel particle size constant at 50 microns. In total eight composite materials were produced, possessing unique microstructures. The microstructure is quantitatively characterized and correlated with the composite constitutive response determined from quasi-static and dynamic compressive loading conditions at strain-rates from 1e-4 to 5e3 /s. Microstructures from each composite and at each strain rate were analyzed to determine the amount of particle strain as a function of bulk strain and strain rate. Using computational simulations of representative microstructures of select composites, the epoxy matrix-metallic particle and particle-particle interactions at the mesoscale under dynamic compressive loading conditions were further examined. From computational simulation data, the stress and strain localization effects were characterized at the mesoscale and the bulk mechanical behavior was decomposed into the individual contributions of the constituent phases. The particle strain and computational analysis provided a greater understanding of the mechanisms associated with particle deformation and stress transfer between phases, and their influence on the overall mechanical response of polymer matrix composites reinforced with metallic particles. The highly heterogeneous composite microstructure and the high contrasting properties of the individual constituents were found to drive localized deformations that are often more pronounced than those in the bulk material. The strain rate behavior of epoxy is shown to cause a strain rate dependent deformation response of reinforcement particle phases that are typically strain rate independent. Additionally, the epoxy matrix strength behavior was found to have a higher dependence on strain rate due to the presence of metal particle fillers. Discrepancies between experimental and simulation mechanical behavior results and these findings indicate a need for epoxy constitutive models to incorporate effects of particle reinforcement on the mechanical behavior.

The objective of this research project was to simulate the behavior of armor metals at high strain rates and large strains, using the Johnson-Cook visco-plastic model, while incorporating the formation of adiabatic shear bands. The model was then to be applied to three armor metals, namely maraging steel 300, high hardness armor (HHA), and aluminum alloy 5083-H131; supplied by the Canadian Department of National Defense and tested in compression at the University of Manitoba. The Johnson-Cook model can accurately simulate the behavior of BCC metal (steels) up to a point of thermal instability. Conditions for complete shear failure in the model match closely to conditions at which adiabatic shear bands formed in specimens tested experimentally. The Johnson-Cook model is not quite valid for FCC metals, such as aluminum, where strain rate and temperature effects are dependent on the strain while in the Johnson-Cook model, these parameters are separable.

The objective of this research project was to simulate the behavior of armor metals at high strain rates and large strains, using the Johnson-Cook visco-plastic model, while incorporating the formation of adiabatic shear bands. The model was then to be applied to three armor metals, namely maraging steel 300, high hardness armor (HHA), and aluminum alloy 5083-H131; supplied by the Canadian Department of National Defense and tested in compression at the University of Manitoba. The Johnson-Cook model can accurately simulate the behavior of BCC metal (steels) up to a point of thermal instability. Conditions for complete shear failure in the model match closely to conditions at which adiabatic shear bands formed in specimens tested experimentally. The Johnson-Cook model is not quite valid for FCC metals, such as aluminum, where strain rate and temperature effects are dependent on the strain while in the Johnson-Cook model, these parameters are separable.

In an automotive crash event, hot stamped, die quenched martensitic structural components have been shown to provide excellent intrusion resistance. These alloys exhibit only limited ductility, however, which may limit the overall impact performance of the component. The introduction of lower strength and more ductile “tailored” properties within some regions of a hot stamped component has the potential to improve impact performance. One approach being applied to achieving such tailored properties is through locally controlling the cooling rate within the stamping die. The primary motivation for the current work is to understand the role of cooling rate on the as-quenched mechanical response of tailored hot stampings, which has required characterization of the high strain rate mechanical behaviour of tailored hot stamped boron steel. The effect of cooling rate and resulting microstructure on the as-quenched mechanical behavior of USIBOR® 1500P boron steel at strain rates between 10-3 and 103 s-1 was investigated. Specimens quenched at rates above the critical cooling rate (~27 °C/s) exhibited a fully martensitic microstructure with a UTS of ~1,450 MPa. Sub-critical cooling rates, in the range 14°C/s to 50 °C/s, resulted in as-quenched microstructures ranging between bainitic to martensitic, respectively. Tension tests revealed that predominantly bainitic material conditions (14 °C/s cooling rate) exhibited a lower UTS of 816 MPa compared to 1,447 MPa for the fully martensitic material condition (50 °C/s cooling rate) with a corresponding increase in elongation from 0.10 to 0.15 for the bainitic condition. The reduction in area was 70% for the bainitic material condition and 58% for the martensitic material conditions which implied that a tailored region consisting of bainite may be a desirable candidate for implementation within a hot stamped component. The strain rate sensitivity was shown to be moderate for all of the as-quenched material conditions and the measured flow stress curves were used to develop a strain rate sensitive constitutive model, the “Tailored Crash Model (TCM)”. The TCM accurately reproduced the measured flow stress curves as a function of effective plastic strain, strain rate and Vickers hardness (or area fraction of martensite and bainite). The effect of deformation during quenching and the associated shift in the CCT diagram on the subsequent constitutive response was also examined for this material. Specimens were simultaneously quenched and deformed at various cooling rates to achieve a range of as-quenched microstructures that included ferrite in addition to martensite and bainite. Tensile tests conducted on these specimens at strain rates ranging from 0.003 s-1 to ~80 s-1 revealed that the presence of ferrite resulted in an increase in uniform elongation and n-value which increased overall energy absorption for a given hardness level. The strain rate sensitivity was shown to be moderate for all of the as-quenched material conditions and the TCM constitutive model was extended to account for the presence of ferrite. This extended constitutive model, the “Tailored Crash Model II (TCM II)”, has been shown to predict flow stress as a function of effective plastic strain, strain rate and area fraction of martensite, bainite and ferrite. As a validation exercise, uniaxial tension test simulations of specimens extracted from the transition zone of a hot stamped lab-scale B-pillar with tailored properties [1] were performed. The measured hardness distribution along the gauge length of the tensile specimens was used as input for the TCM constitutive model to define the element constitutive response used in the finite element (FE) models. The measured stress versus strain response and strain distribution during loading (measured using digital image correlation) was in excellent agreement with the FE models and thus validated the TCM constitutive model developed in this work. Validation of the TCM II version of the model is left for future work.

abstract: The mechanical behavior of Pb-free solder alloys is important, since they must maintain mechanical integrity under thermomechanical fatigue, creep, and mechanical shock conditions. Mechanical shock, in particular, has become an increasing concern in the electronics industry, since electronic packages can be subjected to mechanical shock by mishandling during manufacture or by accidental dropping. In this study, the mechanical shock behavior of Sn and Sn-Ag-Cu alloys was systematically analyzed over the strain rate range 10-3 - 30 s-1 in bulk samples, and over 10-3 - 12 s-1 on the single solder joint level. More importantly, the influences of solder microstructure and intermetallic compounds (IMC) on mechanical shock resistance were quantified. A thorough microstructural characterization of Sn-rich alloys was conducted using synchrotron x-ray computed tomography. The three-dimensional morphology and distribution of contiguous phases and precipitates was analyzed. A multiscale approach was utilized to characterize Sn-rich phases on the microscale with x-ray tomography and focused ion beam tomography to characterize nanoscale precipitates. A high strain rate servohydraulic test system was developed in conjunction with a modified tensile specimen geometry and a high speed camera for quantifying deformation. The effect of microstructure and applied strain rate on the local strain and strain rate distributions were quantified using digital image correlation. Necking behavior was analyzed using a novel mirror fixture, and the triaxial stresses associated with necking were corrected using a self-consistent method to obtain the true stress-true strain constitutive behavior. Fracture mechanisms were quantified as a function of strain rate. Finally, the relationship between solder microstructure and intermetallic compound layer thickness with the mechanical shock resistance of Sn-3.8Ag-0.7Cu solder joints was characterized. It was found that at low strain rates the dynamic solder joint strength was controlled by the solder microstructure, while at high strain rates it was controlled by the IMC layer. The influences of solder microstructure and IMC layer thickness were then isolated using extended reflow or isothermal aging treatments. It was found that at large IMC layer thicknesses the trend described above does not hold true. The fracture mechanisms associated with the dynamic solder joint strength regimes were analyzed. / Dissertation/Thesis / Ph.D. Materials Science and Engineering 2012