Unlike other rosaceous fruit crops such as apple and cherry, commercial raspberry cultivars are largely self-fertile and can set fruit in the absence of pollinators. However, their floral morphology often prevents complete self-pollaintion. Incomplete pollination yields unmarketable small or crumbly fruits. Insect visitation is therefore essential to maximizing raspberry yield. Honey bees are typically used to pollinate commercial raspberry; however, escalating prices for hive rentals coupled with increasing acreage encourage evaluation of other manageable pollinators. Bumble bees (Bombus spp.) and several mason bees (Osmia spp.) are promising raspberry pollinators. Five bee species were evaluated and compared for their single-visit pollination efficacies on raspberry. From this a pollinator effectiveness index was created and an estimation of the minimum number of visits required to maximize fruit set was calculated. This estimation was then experimentally verified. Finally, in an attempt to synchronize their brief activity period with raspberry bloom, winter management options aimed at delaying the emergence of the mason bee, O. lignaria, were investigated. All five bee species proved excellent pollinators of raspberry. None of the alternative manageable species greatly outperformed honey bees. For this reason honey bees remain the most economical and practical option for open-field raspberry pollination. The adoption of alternative manageable bees could still be justified in other production systems, such as high-tunnel or greenhouse grown raspberry, which hamper honey bees’ ability to forage effectively. The pollinator effectiveness score for honey bees suggested that as few as two visits can achieve maximum fruit set. This estimate was confirmed through experimentation on three different red raspberry cultivars. For two of these cultivars, just one visit yielded drupelet counts similar to openly-pollinated flowers. This information can be used to help refine stocking density estimates for honey bees on raspberry. Wintering bees at 0° or -3° C rather than 4° C effectively delayed emergence of O. lignaria by more than a month without any impact on post-winter performance. These results suggest winter storage at near freezing temperatures is a viable management option for the use of O. lignaria with later-blooming crops.

The diethyl ether-extracted organic compounds of 155 samples of unifloral grade New Zealand kamahi and honeydew honeys, and New Zealand and Norwegian erica honeys, together with a series of active and inactive manuka honeys were analysed using combined gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. It was found that Kamahi honey is characterized by the presence of 2,6-dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol, meliracemoic acid, and kamahines A-C and these compounds were typically present at average levels of 31, 14, and 73 mg/kg of honey, respectively. 2,6-Dimethylocta-3,7-diene-2,6-diol was isolated and the structure of this compound was defined using one- and two-dimensional NMR analyses. The only recognizably distinct peak present in the honeydew honey profile was indole acetic acid. In this honey, a relatively low to moderate level of indole acetic acid, ranging from 0.9 to 9.1 mg/kg honey was detected. In the New Zealand erica honey samples, ericinic acid, isoericinic acid isomers (average levels 363 and 34 mg/kg respectively), trans,cis and trans,trans-abscisic acid isomers (average levels 302 and 224 mg/kg respectively) and benzoic acid (average level 6950 mg/kg) were identified as floral marker compounds. Ericinic acid was isolated and the structure of this acid was defined using one-and two-dimensional NMR analyses. Low levels of ericinic and isoericinic acids (average levels of 1.1 and 0.32 mg/kg respectively) were detected in the Norwegian erica-rich honeys. The results presented here indicate that ericinic and isoericinic acids are likely to be universally present in erica honeys at levels which may range from as low as 1 mg/kg or less, as found in some Norwegian samples, to more than 100 mg/kg in some New Zealand samples. Two groups, namely a fingerprint pattern which characterized active manuka honeys, and a fingerprint pattern that characterized inactive manuka honeys were identified. Some substances contributing to the GCMS profile were found as marker compounds for the presence of unidentified substances responsible for the UMF activity. A statistically significant correlation was found between a small set of marker compounds (i.e. phenylacetic acid, 2-methoxyacetophenone, 2-methoxybenzoic, phenyllactic, octanedioic, cis-cinnamic, trans-cinnamic, nonanedioic, 4-methoxyphenyllactic and decanedioic acids and methyl syringate) and UMF activity of manuka honey. The best-fit marker compound regression equation (R = 0.92) was obtained for a set of pooled 30 moderate to high activity (UMF gt 14.1) samples. It was shown that the marker compound regression equation is capable of predicting the approximate UMF activity in both active and inactive manuka and kanuka honey samples. The leaf oil profiles of manuka (L. scoparium) plants that yielded active and inactive manuka honeys were characterized using an adaption of the micro-scale extraction and GC/FID or GC/MS, technique developed by Brophy et al. (1989). Six major groups of volatile (steam distillable) compounds (monoterpenes, sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, oxygenated sesquiterpenes [excluding eudesmols], eudesmols, triketones, and nor-triketones) and 3 groups of non-volatile or semi-volatile compounds (flavonoids, grandiflorone and nor-grandiflorone) were recognized in the leaf oil components. The active manuka honeys do not appear to be derived uniquely, or predominantly, from a single leaf oil chemotype.

Brown and Penicillium rot (blue and green mould) are the most common postharvest diseases in New Zealand, causing significant postharvest fruit losses. Current practice uses fungicides to control the postharvest diseases; however there are perceived health risks associated with the use of such chemicals. Recently, there has been substantial interest in chemicals that are considered Generally Regarded as Safe or GRAS and natural products as alternative postharvest treatments to replace currently used fungicides. In this study, ethanol (GRAS chemical) and the natural products honey, milk and essential oils (lemon, lemongrass, manuka and orange) were assessed as potential alternative treatments to replace the currently used fungicides on both peaches and oranges. In pilot studies ethanol was applied to the fruit by either vapour or dipping (30 seconds or 1.5 minutes). Honey, milk and essential oils were applied by dipping at 30 seconds. Essential oils were also tested using a microtiter assay. Exposing fruit to ethanol vapour proved effective at inhibiting fungal growth, but impacted negatively on fruit quality. Peaches that were exposed to 70% to 100% ethanol vapour were protected against fungal infection for up to 30 days when stored at either 4ºC or room temperature. This is compared to two days for untreated peaches and three days for fungicide -treated peaches. However, the ethanol-treated peaches suffered from severe browning. In contrast, 20% ethanol protected peaches for ten days when stored at 4ºC and two days at room temperature. The fruit that were exposed to 20% ethanol did not brown as a result of the treatment. Oranges that were exposed to 20%, 50%, 70% and 100% ethanol vapour were protected from fungal inhibition for 30 days at both 4ºC and room temperature, but they too suffered from severe browning. Dipping was not as effective as vapour at protecting against fungal infection, but had a little effect on fruit quality. Peaches dipped in 20% to 100% ethanol were completely rotten by ten days when stored at room temperature, but the peaches experienced little to no browning. Untreated and fungicide-treated fruit were protected for one day and two days, respectively. Milk and honey do not appear to have potential as postharvest treatments. Peaches that were treated with 20%, 50% and 100% whole milk and 50% manuka honey showed greater degree of fungal infection compared to untreated peaches after both room temperature and 4ºC storage. At room temperature, peaches that were exposed to 20%, 50% and 100% milk were completely rotten at eight days, compared with ten days for untreated peaches. In contrast, at 4ºC, peaches that were treated with 100% milk were completely rotten at 30 days, while only a slight fungal infection observed on untreated fruit. Similar to milk, honey-treated peaches were also completely rotten at 30 days at 4ºC storage.In vitro (microtiter) assay of the essential oils showed that orange and manuka oils appeared to be effective only at high concentrations. In contrast, lemongrass and lemon oils appeared to be effective even at low concentrations. Of the essential oils tested in the in vivo assay, lemongrass and lemon oils have the greatest potential. Oranges that were exposed to 0.05% lemongrass oil, 0.25% and 0.5% lemon oil were protected for 30 days when stored at 4ºC or room temperature. They provided the best antifungal activity compared to the other concentrations of all four essential oils tested as well as fungicide treatment for 30 days. Of all the treatment tested, 0.05% lemongrass oil, 0.25% and 0.5% lemon oil appeared to be the most promising treatments. However, these treatments need to be tested for antifungal effects, fruit quality, flavour and nutritional effects in large scale experiments before they can be applied as replacements to currently used fungicides. Also, essential oils are complex compounds; therefore it would be of interest to determine the active compound(s) of the lemongrass and lemon oils.

In the honey bee, responsiveness to sucrose correlates with many behavioural parameters such as age of first foraging, foraging role and learning. Sucrose responsiveness can be measured using the proboscis extension response (PER) by applying sucrose solutions of increasing concentrations to the antenna of a bee. We tested whether the biogenic amines octopamine, tyramine and dopamine, and the dopamine receptor agonist 2-amino-6,7-dihydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthalene (6,7-ADTN) can modulate sucrose responsiveness. The compounds were either injected into the thorax or fed in sucrose solution to compare different methods of application. Injection and feeding of tyramine or octopamine significantly increased sucrose responsiveness. Dopamine decreased sucrose responsiveness when injected into the thorax. Feeding of dopamine had no effect. Injection of 6,7-ADTN into the thorax and feeding of 6,7-ADTN reduced sucrose responsiveness significantly. These data demonstrate that sucrose responsiveness in honey bees can be modulated by biogenic amines, which has far reaching consequences for other types of behaviour in this insect. (C) 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

In an earlier project completed in our laboratory a seasonal fluctuation in Phosphoglucomutase (PGM) phenotype frequencies was found, so that the winter bees were almost all heterozygotes and long lived than the summer bees among which homozygotes were significantly at high frequencies at Pgm locus. Same results were obtained in populations of three subspecies, A. m. meda, A. m. caucasica, and A. m. carnica from different climatic regions. In the current study environmental cues related with seasonal change in PGM phenotype frequency was examined along with the correlation between PGM heterozygosity and overwintering success. Cessation of food influx was found to be effective by itself as an environmental cue that causes a sudden and sharp increase in PGM heterozygosity. In addition to that, PGM heterozygosity of the colonies with greater overwintering success was found to be significantly higher than the ones with intermediate or low overwintering success. Benefiting from the previous studies and the results of current study, ethyl oleate was suggested as a chemical signal that functions in the regulation of PGM heterozygosity.

The benefits gained by the presentation of environmental enrichment (EE) to captive animals are widely recognized. Few studies have, however, studied how to maximize the effect of EE. Repeated presentations of EE may cause a reduced interest towards the EE device, called habituation. To study the effect of habituation towards EE, behavioural data from 14 captive Sloth bears (Melursus ursinus) were collected during two different EE treatments. In treatment one, honey logs were presented for five consecutive days (ConsEE). In treatment two, the logs were presented every alternative day for five days (AltEE). The different treatments both showed a significant effect on responsiveness toward the EE, however, leaving gap days inbetween presentations in AltEE showed no reliable reduction in habituation. Both treatments significantly reduced stereotypies, however, only ConsEE reduced levels of stereotypies long term. Explorative behaviours, which are the most prominent behaviours in the wild, increased during both treatments. This is consistent with previous findings (Fischbacher & Schmid 1999, Grandia et al. 2001) that EE increases natural behaviours, which has been desribed as an indication of improved welfare (Carlstead et al. 1991 etc.). Other behavioural categories such as social and passiva behaviours were unaffected by the EE presentations. THe results show that it is possible to increase the effectiveness of EE by simple means in order to ensure animal welfare.

Pollinering är avgörande för ett antal kommersiella grödor samt för olika växtarter i inhemsk vegetation. Honungsbi (Apis mellifera) är en av de viktigaste pollinerarna. I regionen Taranaki i Nya Zeeland finns två aspekter av kommersiell pollinering, dels betalar många biodlare för tillgång till manuka för de antibakteriella egenskaperna honungen får av den, dels betalar frukt- och grönsaksodlare för pollinering av sina grödor. Markägare kan ha ett intresse av att spara manuka på sina marker och få en utkomst från biodlarna genom att dessa betalar för åtkomsten. Studien syftar till att klarlägga de effekter som kommersiell pollinering har i Taranaki-regionen idag och för framtida användning och har utgått från intervjuer med biodlare, frukt- och grönsaksodlare och personer som representerar myndigheterna. Resultaten visar att de ekonomiska effekterna av kommersiell pollinering i dag i Taranaki-regionen är relativt små. Även den kommersiella pollineringens roll för skydd och förvaltning av inhemsk natur undersöks. Kommersiell pollinering kan vara en viktig del inom naturskydd men är samtidigt beroende på om interaktionen med andra bin kan vara skadlig. Pollineringstjänster kan utvecklas dels genom information till markägare och jordbrukare, dels genom marknadsföring från biodlare. / Pollination is crucial for a number of commercial crops as well as for native vegetation. The honey bee (Apis mellifera) is one of the most important pollinators. In the Taranaki region in New Zealand there are two aspects of commercial pollination; beekeepers pay for access to manuka due to the antibacterial quality it gives the honey and orchardists pay for pollination of their crops. Landowners could have an interest in managing the manuka and having beekeepers paying for the access. This study seeks to elucidate the effects that commercial pollination has in Taranaki region, today as well as for future use, through interviews with beekeepers, orchardists and authority personnel. The results show that the effects of commercial pollination in Taranaki are of minor extent. Also the role commercial pollination plays for environmental management is highlighted. Commercial pollination may be a part of nature protection and play a particular role in effort to increase biodiversity, but it is much depending on the interaction with native bees. Pollination services may be developed in different ways including informing landowners and farmers and marketing of beekeepers.

This thesis examines three factors that may influence the change in protein content and size of the brood food glands in honey bees. Effects on the mandibular gland, involved in the production of brood food and in royal jelly, have not been examined in relation to primer pheromones while effects on the hypopharyngeal glands, also involved in the production of brood food, have not been examined in relation to queen mandibular pheromone. This thesis provides preliminary insight into how these pheromones affect the extractable protein content of brood food glands. The first study in this thesis assessed the effects of brood pheromone (BP), queen mandibular pheromone (QMP), and pollen presence on the protein content of hypopharyngeal and mandibular glands of the honey bee. In this study, newly emerged bees were caged for 12 days in one of eight treatments: Queenless state: 1) control (no pollen + no pheromone), 2) pollen, 3) BP, 4) BP + pollen; Queenright state: 1) QMP, 2) QMP + pollen, 3) BP + QMP, 4) BP + QMP + pollen. This study indicated that regardless of pheromone treatment, the most influential factor on gland protein content and size was pollen. The second experiment examined effects of varying pollen dilution on hypopharyngeal and mandibular gland protein content, bee mass, and lipid content of the honey bee. In this experiment, newly emerged bees were caged for 7 days and fed one of five treatments: pollen, 1:1 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol), 1:2 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol); 1:3 pollen: cellulose (vol:vol), and cellulose. This study indicated that bees on the pollen diet were significantly greater than all other diluted diets in measurements of hypopharyngeal gland protein content, lipid content, and mass with significantly less consumption. However, mandibular gland protein content of bees on the pollen diet was significantly greater only from pure cellulose.

In this dissertation, we explore the properties of correlation structure for spatio-temporal point processes and a quantitative spatial process. Spatio-temporal point processes are often assumed to be separable; we propose a formal approach for testing whether a particular data set is indeed separable. Because of the resampling methodology, the approach requires minimal conditions on the underlying spatio-temporal process to perform the hypothesis test, and thus is appropriate for a wide class of models. Africanized Honey Bees (AHBs, Apis mellifera scutellata) abscond more frequently and defend more quickly than colonies of European origin. That they also utilize smaller cavities for building colonies expands their range of suitable hive locations to common objects in urban environments. The aim of the AHB study is to create a model of this quantitative spatial process to predict where AHBs were more likely to build a colony, and to explore what variables might be related to the occurrences of colonies. We constructed two generalized linear models to predict the habitation of water meter boxes, based on surrounding landscape classifications, whether there were colonies in surrounding areas, and other variables. The presence of colonies in the area was a strong predictor of whether AHBs occupied a water meter box, suggesting that AHBs tend to form aggregations, and that the removal of a colony from a water meter box may make other nearby boxes less attractive to the bees.

Heat treatment (around 50&deg / C) is a major step in honey filling and packaging that is applied before filtration to decrease viscosity, reduce the moisture level, to destroy yeasts, liquefy crystals and delay crystallization. As a result, formation of Hydroxy Methyl Furfural (HMF), decrease in enzymatic activity, color deterioration, decrease in viscosity and many other structural changes are observed. HMF is produced as a result of Maillard reaction and/or hexose dehydration -which is undesirable-, practically, it is found in fresh honey in low levels, and increases due to heat treatment, storage temperature, pH (acidity) and sugar concentration of honey. HMF level and diastase number are important quality parameters and shelf life indicators of honey. Alternatives of v heat treatment may be the use of ultrasound and high hydrostatic pressure (HHP) to decrease viscosity, liquefy honey and thus minimise adverse affects of heat treatment. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of HHP (220-330 MPa, 50-60&deg / C, time) and ultrasound (24 kHz) on liquefaction and quality parameters (HMF, diastase number, color and viscosity) of different honey varieties (sunflower, cotton and canola) and to compare the changes with heat treated (50&deg / C and 60&deg / C, time) and untreated honey. Based on the results of the chemical and physical analysis, for HHP treatment the best treatment combination was determined as 220 MPa, 50&deg / C, 106 min. For ultrasound treatment the best treatment combinations were determined as 7 mm probe- 0.5 cycle (batch) applications. On this basis the study points out that Ultrasound and HHP can be suggested as alternative methods to traditional thermal treatment for the liquefaction of honey crystals. When compared to thermal treatment, Ultrasound is advantageous in shorter application times, slight changes in quality parameters and ease in operation. HHP treatment is also an alternative method with shorter application times and lower HMF values.