Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento e a otimização de metodologias analíticas para avaliação da temperatura de transição vítrea (Tg) por DSC e determinação do teor de umidade e cinzas por TG/DTG de amostras de mel. Além disso, foi realizado também um estudo da variabilidade nestes parâmetros físico-químicos e na temperatura de transição vítrea de amostras de méis monoflorais de eucalipto e laranja de algumas regiões do Estado de São Paulo. Para a avaliação termogravimétrica das amostras de mel, inicialmente foi realizado um estudo do comportamento térmico de padrões de carboidratos por TG/DTG, DSC e DTA Os resultados obtidos permitiram diferenciar as etapas de decomposição térmica correspondentes aos açúcares dos demais componentes presentes no mel. A variabilidade nos conteúdos de umidade e cinzas de méis de eucalipto e laranja foram investigadas por planejamento hierárquico e pela análise de variância (ANOVA) e verificou-se que estes parâmetros físico-químicos são significativamente diferentes no nível de 95% de confiança. Para o desenvolvimento e otimização de metodologias analíticas para a determinação do teor de umidade e de cinzas em mel por TG/DTG foram utilizados os métodos oficiais e aplicados planejamentos experimentais e um teste-F para a comparação entre variâncias. Os resultados sugeriram que para a obtenção de conteúdos médios de umidade e cinzas em mel por TG/DTG, similares aos encontrados pelos métodos oficiais, é necessário utilizar cadinho de alumina (150 µL), taxas de aquecimento de 5ºC/min e papel de microfibra de vidro. Além disso, a comparação entre a variabilidade do método termogravimétrico com os métodos oficiais para estas determinações sugeriu que não existem diferenças significativas entre os métodos investigados. Para as amostras de méis monoflorais de laranja e eucalipto foram determinadas temperaturas de transição vítrea médias de -47 e -55ºC, respectivamente sugerindo uma diferença significativa nesta propriedade física para estes tipos de méis. Além disso, entre o conteúdo de umidade e a temperatura de transição vítrea destes tipos de méis foi verificada uma correlação linear negativa significativa no nível de 95% de confiança (r = - 0,916). Assim pode-se dizer, que os parâmetros fisico-químicos umidade e cinzas obtidos pelos métodos oficiais ou pelo método termogravimétrico e a temperatura de transição vítrea determinada por DSC podem ser utilizados para a caracterização da origem floral destes tipos de méis. / This work presents the optimization and development of analytical methodologies for evaluation of glass transition temperature (Tg) by DSC and for moisture and ash content determinations by TG/DTG of honey samples. Beyond this, a study of variability in these physicochemical parameters determined by conventional methods was realized for eucalyptus and citrus monofloral honeys of some regions of São Paulo State. For the thermogravimetric evaluation of honey samples, initially a study of thermal behavior of standard of carbohydrates was carried out by TG/DTG, DSC and DTA The results obtained allowed to distinguish the decomposition steps corresponding to the sugars in relation to other components present in honey. The variabilities in average moisture and ash contents of eucalyptus and citrus monofloral honeys were investigated by a hierarchical design and by an analysis of variance (ANOVA). These physicochemical parameters are significantly different at the 95% confidence level. For the development and optimization of analytical methodologies for moisture and ash contents in honey by TG/DTG conventional methods, experimental designs and a F-test for the comparison between variances were utilized. The results suggest that to get average moisture and ash contents in honey by TG/DTG similar to those found by conventional methods an alumine crucible (150 µL ), heating rates of 5ºC/min and microfiber glass paper should be used. Besides this, the comparison between the thermogravimetric method and the conventional ones for these determinations suggest that there are no significant differences between the methods investigated. For eucalyptus and citrus monofloral honeys average glass transition temperatures of -47 and -55ºC, respectively, were determined suggesting a significant difference in this physical property for these honey types. Besides this, a significant negative linear correlation at 95% confidence level (r = - 0.916) was verified between the moisture contents and glass transition temperatures of these honey types. So, it may be said that the physicochemical parameters, moisture and ash, obtained by conventional and thermogravimetric methods and the glass transition temperature determined by DSC can be utilized for the characterization of the floral origin of these types of honey.

A comunidade de abelhas associada a uma área de cerrado do Campus da Universidade de São Paulo, no município de Pirassununga-SP foi estudada no período de julho de 2000 a julho de 2002, por meio de amostragem sistemática das abelhas em plantas com floração realizadas quinzenalmente, e com concomitante tipificação dos méis produzidos pelas espécies de abelhas que apresentaram um número significativo de indivíduos coletados. Foram coletados 511 indivíduos, pertencentes a 51 espécies e a 31 gêneros de 4 famílias de Apoidea. A comunidade de abelhas no cerrado seguiu o padrão geral encontrado nas comunidades neotropicais, apresentando muitas espécies com poucos indivíduos e poucas espécies com muitos indivíduos. A família Apidae (sensu latu) foi a mais rica em espécies e a mais abundante. Foram encontradas plantas com períodos prolongados de florescimento lado a lado com plantas de períodos curtos, de modo que praticamente o ano todo tem-se plantas em floração, proporcionando recursos tróficos para as abelhas durante todos os meses. As abelhas visitantes foram coletadas em 52,86% das 140 espécies de plantas em floração, sendo a família Asteraceae a que obteve um maior número de espécies de plantas visitadas pelos insetos (18,92%). Didymopanax vinosum (Araliaceae) foi a espécie vegetal com maior número de abelhas visitantes. Nas espécies de meliponídios estudadas obteve-se baixa produção, justificando o número restrito de colônias encontradas nas áreas. Os meses de maior produção de mel, para a Apis mellifera ocorreram de agosto a novembro, em contrapartida entre os meses de dezembro a fevereiro não foi possível a coleta de amostra. As médias dos parâmetros físico-químicos análisados, das amostras de méis provenientes das duas áreas de cerrado, se enquadram nos padrões de normas em vigor. Através das análises polínicas verificou-se que as abelhas também visitaram áreas vizinhas aos locais onde se encontravam as colméias, utilizando-se principalmente de Eucalyptus sp. e Citrus sp. / This research deals with the community of bees from the "cerrado" area of the Campus of the University of São Paulo, in Pirassununga, State of São Paulo, Brazil. The bees occurring on flowering plants were fortnightly sampled from July 2000 to July 2002. The honeys produced by the most frequent bee species were characterized as well. The 511 collected specimens were composed by 51 species and 31 genera of 4 families of the Apoidea. The bee community of the "cerrado" followed the same general pattern of the neotropical communities, presenting many species with few individuals and few species with many individuals. The family Apidae ("sensu latu") was the most abundant one with the highest number of species. One observed long flowering period plants together with short flowering ones, thus providing nutritional resources for the bees the year round. Visiting bees were collected in 52.86% of the 140 flowering plant species, most of them (18.92%) from the family Asteraceae. However Didimopanax vinosum (Araliaceae) was the plant species presenting the highest number of visiting bees. Concerning the species of meliponids studied the honey production was low due to the restricted number of colonies found in the area. As to Apis mellifera the honey production was higher from August to November, but it was impossible to collect samples from December to February. The mean of the physicochemical parameters used to analyse the honey samples from the two "cerrado" areas do fit with the standard rules. Through pollen analyses one observed that the bees have visited mainly plants of Eucalyptus sp. and Citrus sp. in the neighboring areas to their hives.

Introdução: Feridas de difícil cicatrização em diabéticos são associadas ao estresse oxidativo. O mel de abelhas tem sido descrito como potencial tratamento pela atividade antioxidante. Objetivo: Avaliar a atividade biológica na cicatrização, do mel de Apis Mellífera de Eucalipto (RS-Brasil) (ME) em comparação com o de Manuka (Nova Zelândia) (MK) como padrão internacional e caracterizar sua físico-química e capacidade antioxidante. Métodos: Estudo experimental com camundongos Swiss induzidos ao diabetes com Aloxana, que receberam tratamento tópico com mel (ME e MK) previamente caracterizada, durante 15 dias e foram avaliados na cinética da cicatrização e morfologia tecidual. Resultados: ME e MK aceleraram a cicatrização dos animais diabéticos de 18 dias para 15. A morfologia da ferida no dia 3 teve um melhor aspecto nos animais tratados. MK teve maior teor de ácidos fenólicos; porém a atividade antioxidante de ambos meis foi alta. Conclusão: ME e MK promovem a cicatrização de maneira similar provavelmente pelo efeito antioxidante e o conteúdo de ácidos fenólicos. / Background: A difficult-to-heal wound in diabetic patients has been associated with the oxidative stress on tissue. Bee honey has been described as a potential treatment by the antioxidant activity. Aim: To evaluate the biological activity in wound healing of Apis Mellífera honey from Eucalyptus (RS-Brazil) (ME) in comparison with Manukas honey (New Zealand) (MK) as an international standard, and characterize its physical-chemistry properties and antioxidant capacity. Methods: Experimental study using Swiss mice induced to diabetes with Aloxana, who received topical treatment with previously characterized honey (ME e MK), during 15 days. Were evaluated the wound healing kinetics and tissue morphology. Results: ME and MK accelerated the diabetic animals wound healing from 18 days to 15. The morphology of wound at 3rd day had a better aspect in treated animals. MK had higher level of phenolic acids; however the antioxidant activity of both honeys were high. Conclusion: ME and MK improve wound healing on a similar way, probably because of the antioxidant effect and phenolic acids content.

O presente estudo teve, como objetivo principal, a determinação da composição físico-química e nutricional de onze amostras de méis com própolis comercializados no Estado de São Paulo, de acordo com as metodologias analíticas da legislação brasileira vigente (Instrução Normativa nº11 de 20 de outubro de 2000), que segue os métodos preconizados pelos Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC), 1990 e Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC), 1990). Amostras de mel puro e de própolis foram usadas como referência. Os resultados mostraram que os mesmos métodos usados para o controle de qualidade do mel puro (umidade, HMF, açúcares redutores, sacarose aparente, cinzas, acidez livre, sólidos insolúveis em água) foram adequados para o controle de qualidade do mel com própolis, exceto pela analise de atividade diastásica, que precisou de uma adaptação metodológica. A análise de minerais demonstrou que essas amostras não são fontes de ferro, magnésio, zinco e cálcio. A própolis adicionada ao mel aumentou o seu valor energético comparado com o mel puro. Cinco das onze amostras analisadas não apresentaram, na sua rotulagem, os valores nutricionais como recomenda a legislação. É indicada a necessidade de uma fiscalização mais rigorosa, assim como uma legislação específica para o controle de qualidade destes produtos. / The present work has, as its main objective, to determine the physico-chemical and nutritional composition of commercial samples of propolis added to honey from São Paulo State. Eleven honey-propolis samples were analyzed, according to the methods established by the Brazilian Law (Instrução Normativa n.11 de 20 de outubro de 2000) which recommends the same methods established by Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) and the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC, 1990). The results showed that the same methods used for pure honey quality control (moisture, HMF, reducing sugars, apparent sucrose, ash, free acidity, insoluble solids in water) except for the diastase activity which had to be adapted, can also be used for the honey-propolis quality control. The mineral analyses results showed that the samples were not a good source for iron, magnesium, zinc and calcium. Honey has its energy value enhanced by the addition of propolis if compared with pure honey. As five of the eleven samples analyzed did not have the nutritional values information on the labels as it is mandatory by the Brazilian Legislation, a more rigorous inspection and even a specific law should be established for the quality control of those products.

Orientador: José Carlos Peraçoli / Banca: José Carlos Peraçoli / Banca: Vera Therezinha Medeiros Borges / Banca: Marcos Roberto Ymayo / Banca: Maria Luiza Gonzáles Riesco / Banca: Ana Maria de Almeida / Resumo: A restrição hospitalar de alimentação e fluido oral para parturientes é uma tradição obstétrica fortemente organizada, justificada pelo risco de regurgitação e aspiração do conteúdo gástrico durante a anestesia. Estudos demonstram que independente do tempo da última refeição, o estômago nunca está completamente vazio, pois o jejum não elimina o conteúdo estomacal; pelo contrário, aumenta a concentração de ácido clorídrico, podendo o jejum prolongado causar aumento do volume gástrico e da acidez. Embora a infusão intravenosa seja necessária, em muitas circunstâncias obstétricas, para administração de medicamentos ou anestesia, o emprego de fluidos intravenosos de rotina não pode ser considerada um substituto completamente seguro de alimento e líquidos no trabalho de parto. Estudos comparam o esforço do trabalho de parto com o desempenho atlético como correr uma maratona, porém há carência de informação das necessidades nutricionais da parturiente e seu feto A normatização das práticas durante a assistência ao parto normal reflete a promoção do parto e nascimento saudáveis, porém observam-se ainda atitudes desvinculadas dos últimos achados científicos. / Abstract: Oral fluid and dietary restriction for parturients in hospital settings is a highly organized obstetric tradition aimed at preventing regurgitation and aspiration of gastric matter from taking place during anesthesia. Studies have shown that, independently from the time of the last meal, the stomach is never completely empty because fasting does not eliminate stomach contents. Quite the contrary, there is an increase in chloridric acid. Besides, prolonged fasting may raise the level of gastric volume and acidity. Intravenous infusion is necessary, but when it comes to medication or anesthesia management, routine intravenous fluids may not work as well as food and liquids during obstetric labor. Some studies show that giving birth takes as much effort as running a marathon. Nevertheless, information about the nutritional needs of parturient and fetus is scarce. Although less scientific forms of labor management can still be found, concrete measures towards promoting a healthier labor can be taken by the standardization of the assistance to the mother in normal labor. / Doutor

Nosema ceranae, a microsporidian, has been given much attention in recent years as it has been linked with Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD), which leads to the sudden deaths of honey bee colonies. It has been described that many pathogenic organisms secrete virulence factors in order to hijack its host`s cellular functions, but in most cases the underlying mechanisms of this process still remains to be deciphered. Cornman et al. (2009) have identified in N. ceranae a list of putative effector proteins (called secretome) destined to be secreted into the host, and I have taken this list for further investigation using a bioinformatical and experimental approaches. The principal aim of this project was to generate a N. ceranae ORFeome for genes predicted to be secreted, elucidate the function of effector candidates important for N. ceranae biology and/or pathogenicity, as well as to investigate any interactions between N. ceranae proteins and its host utilising two eukaryotic model organisms, budding yeast, S. cerevisiae, and fruit fly, D. melanogaster. A library of S. cerevisiae strains expressing N. ceranae proteins was generated utilising the Gateway® technology, and phenotypic and localisation screens were undertaken to investigate the N. ceranae secretome. Two N. ceranae ORFs, NcORF-15 (NcORF-02039) and NcORF-16 (NcORF-01159) encoding a putative thioredoxin and a hexokinase, respectively, were subjected to yeast complementation assays in order to assess their catalytic activity. NcORF-15, the putative thioredoxin, was able to rescue the sensitive phenotype of S. cerevisiae Δtrx2 under oxidative stress, whereas NcORF-16, the putative hexokinase, did not complement YSH7.4-3C, a triple knockout lacking hexokinase activity. A third N. ceranae effector candidate NcORF-4 (NcORF-00654), a putative proteasome subunit, was investigated for its nuclear localisation and protein interactions in both S. cerevisiae and D. melanogaster.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-28T20:15:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Ana Claudia Marassi.pdf: 1189673 bytes, checksum: d5199b9ad94e14063b041f6503d502f7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-09-23 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Honey is a food produced by bees from the nectar of flowers collected and processed by the digestive enzymes of insects, stored in combs in their hives to serve them food. The Brazilian apiculture (branch of agriculture that studies of honey bees) has suffered high losses of honey bees, due to a number of diseases that affect the hives, putting them at risk. Many species of yeasts and molds can grow in the hive using honey as a substrate, such as the genus Aspergillus, which is important because it contains species that produce mycotoxins and / or pathogenic to bees. The Brazilian sac brood disease (BSB) is a disease with high mortality, characterized by death in the pre-pupa or pupa and that have occurred in southeastern Brazil, with substantial losses to beekeeping. However, its etiology is unknown in the region, which were dismissed any similarity to the European Creates bagged caused by Sac Brood Virus (SBV), and the Stryphnodendron polyphyllum (Fabaceae, Mimosoidea), the common name barbatim?o. The objectives of this study were 1) to assess the fungal contamination in honey bee brood and thus determining influence on the occurrence of BSB in the environment of the hive, in Rio de Janeiro, 2) enumerate the fungal propagules in samples of honey in the comb, and the young (pre-pupae and pupae) from apiaries located in regions affected by BSB, 3) determine the frequency and identify the mycoflora total, 4) identify fungal species pathogenic to bees, 5) characterize toxigenic profile isolated species of the genus Aspergillus. A total of 43 honey samples and 43 samples of offspring (larvae and pupae) was purchased from apiaries that have already expressed the CEB, in the municipalities of Barra do Pira?, Mendes and Itaipava (endemic areas). Sampling occurred in the months corresponding to the period before, during and after - disease (based on data from recent outbreaks). Analysis of the mycoflora were performed by spread plate on the culture media dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol agar (DRBC) and dichloran 18% glycerol agar (DG18). The total fungal counts were expressed as cfu g-1. We determined the number of samples and frequency of isolation (%) of fungal genera and the relative density of species. The determination of toxigenic fungi was done using the technique of thin layer chromatography (TLC). The values of total fungal counts were similar in both media DRBC and DG18 for the samples of offspring. The highest counts were observed in samples of honey in the comb, with 7,7 x 104 cfu g-1 on DRBC medium and 5.9 x 104 cfu g-1 in DG18 medium. Aspergillus, Penicillium and Cladosporium were the most frequently isolated both in the honey comb, as in the offspring. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus and Penicillium citrinum showed the highest relative density in honey and brood. In the TLC analysis for the fungi isolated honey in the comb, were not observed for positive strains isolated species of the genus Aspergillus. Among the strains analyzed in the mycoflora of the larvae, there is presence of positive strains for toxigenic profile of A. flavus in samples from Barra do Pirai and Itaipava. For strains producing ochratoxins, the result was 100% negative for all sites studied. The fungi found in this study can be related to losses bee in Rio de Janeiro, but is not present apparent direct with BSB. However, more studies are needed to identify the mycoflora of honey and brood, correlating the possible species that produce mycotoxins with the mycoflora present in the substrate, promoting so help on the etiology of BSB in this state. Keywords: fungi, honey, brood, bees. / O mel ? um alimento produzido pelas abelhas a partir do n?ctar recolhido de flores e processado pelas enzimas digestivas desses insetos, sendo armazenado em favos em suas colm?ias para servir-lhes de alimento. A apicultura brasileira tem sofrido altas perdas de abelhas mel?feras, devido a uma s?rie de doen?as que afetam as colm?ias, colocando-as sob risco. Muitas esp?cies de leveduras e fungos podem desenvolver-se na colm?ia utilizando o mel como substrato, como por exemplo, o g?nero Aspergillus, importante por abranger esp?cies produtoras de micotoxinas e/ou patog?nicas para as abelhas. A Cria Ensacada Brasileira (CEB) ? uma doen?a com alto grau de mortalidade, caracterizada por morte na fase de pr?-pupa ou pupa e que v?m ocorrendo na Regi?o sudeste do Brasil. Sua etiologia ? desconhecida, j? que foi descartada qualquer semelhan?a com a Cria Ensacada Europ?ia causada pelo Sac Brood V?rus (SBV), e com a intoxica??o pelo p?len do Stryphnodendron polyphyllum, de nome vulgar barbatim?o. Os objetivos deste estudo foram: 1) avaliar a contamina??o f?ngica em amostras de mel e crias de abelhas determinando assim rela??o com a ocorr?ncia da CEB no ambiente da colm?ia, no Estado do Rio de Janeiro; 2) enumerar os prop?gulos f?ngicos nas amostras de mel em favo, e de crias (pupas e pr?-pupas) provenientes de api?rios localizados em regi?es acometidas pela CEB; 3) determinar a frequ?ncia e identificar a micobiota total; 4) identificar esp?cies f?ngicas patog?nicas para as abelhas; 5) caracterizar o perfil tox?geno de esp?cies isoladas do g?nero Aspergillus. Um total de 43 amostras de mel e 43 amostras de crias (larvas e pupas) foi adquirido em api?rios localizados nos munic?pios de Barra do Pira?, Mendes e Itaipava (?reas end?micas). As coletas ocorreram nos meses correspondentes ao per?odo pr?, e trans - doen?a (baseado nos dados dos ?ltimos surtos). A an?lise da micobiota foi feita pelo m?todo de dilui??o em placa sobre os meios de cultivo dicloran rosa bengala cloranfenicol agar (DRBC) e dicloran glicerol 18% agar (DG18). As contagens f?ngicas totais foram expressas em ufc g-1. Foram determinadas o n?mero de amostras e a freq??ncia de isolamento (%) dos g?neros f?ngicos e a densidade relativa das esp?cies. A determina??o do perfil tox?geno dos fungos foi feita atrav?s da t?cnica de cromatografia em camada delgada (CCD). Os valores de contagens f?ngicas totais foram similares em ambos os meios DRBC e DG18, para as amostras de crias. As maiores contagens foram observadas em amostras de mel em favo, com 7,7 x 104 ufc g-1 em meio DRBC e 5,9 x 104 ufc g-1 em meio DG18. Aspergillus, Penicillium e Cladosporium foram os g?neros mais freq?entemente isolados tanto no mel em favo, quanto nas crias. Aspergillus niger, A. flavus e Penicillium citrinum apresentaram as maiores densidades relativas no mel e nas crias. Na an?lise em CCD para os fungos isolados no mel em favo, n?o foram observadas cepas positivas para as esp?cies isoladas do g?nero Aspergillus. Dentre as cepas analisadas na micobiota das larvas, h? presen?a de cepas positivas para o perfil tox?geno de A. flavus nas amostras de Barra do Pira? e Itaipava. Para as cepas produtoras de ocratoxinas, o resultado foi de 100% negativas para todos os locais estudados. Os fungos encontrados neste estudo podem estar relacionados ?s perdas ap?colas no estado do Rio de Janeiro, por?m n?o apresentam aparente rela??o direta com a CEB. Contudo, mais estudos s?o necess?rios para identifica??o da micobiota do mel e das crias, correlacionando ?s esp?cies poss?veis produtoras de micotoxinas com a micobiota presente nos substratos, promovendo assim o aux?lio acerca da etiologia da CEB neste estado.

It has been observed that returning honey bee foragers congregate with unemployed foragers and food receiver bees in a localized region of the hive known as the dance floor. Here, the returning foragers advertise food sources via the waggle dance. It was hypothesized that the close proximity of the dance floor to the hive entrance was related to foragers minimizing time and travel inside the hive. The hive entrance is conventionally located at the bottom of the hive. It was suggested that this location was ideal for easy removal of debris. This correlation between dance floor location and hive entrance location invokes further examination of the relationship. Is the hive entrance location used to establish dance floor location? Using scan sampling- the hive was visually scanned along rows in a descending fashion from the top right corner to hive entrance. The location of each observed waggle dance was recorded for 30 minutes. Observations were conducted for three consecutive days, then the hive entrance location was displaced. The observation hive was altered to contain three hive entrances located adjacent to the bottom first frame, adjacent to the center of the second frame, and adjacent to the middle of the third frame. Only one hive entrance was open at a given time. For the last three days of the experiment, the bottom hive entrance was made accessible again. Regardless of entrance position, the dance floor was seen to be established adjacent to the hive entrance.

Pesticides, poor nutrition, parasites and diseases work synergistically to contribute to the decline of the honey bee. Heritable sub-lethal behavior/immune effects may also contribute to the decline. Maternal stress is a common source of heritable immune/behavior deficits in many species. A stressed honey bee queen has the potential to pass such deficits on to worker bees. Using a repeated measures design, this study will determine whether the health of worker bee is reduced by a cold stress on the queen by analyzing egg hatch rate and protein content, emergence rate, and adult aggression and immune function for offspring laid before and after the stressor. Results show that queen stress influences egg hatching rate and emergence rate but does not impact egg protein content, adult offspring immune function or aggressive behavior.

The inadvertent spread of exotic pests and pathogens has resulted in devastating losses for bees. The vast majority of bee disease research has focused on a single species of managed bee, the European honey bee (Apis mellifera). More recently, pathogen spillover from managed bees is implicated in the decline of several bumble bee species (Bombus spp.) demonstrating a need to better understand the mechanisms driving disease prevalence in bees, transmission routes, and spillover events. RNA viruses, once considered specific to honey bees, are suspected of spilling over from managed honey bees into wild bumble bee populations. To test this, I collected bees and flowers in the field from areas with and without honey bee apiaries nearby. Prevalence of deformed wing virus (DWV) and black queen cell virus (BQCV) as well as replicating DWV infections in Bombus vagans and B. bimaculatus were highest in bumble bees collected near honey bee apiaries (χ 12 < 6.531, P < 0.05). My results suggest that honey bees are significant contributors of viruses to bumble bees. Flowers have been suspected as bridges in virus transmission among bees. I detected bee viruses on 18% of the flowers collected within honey bee apiaries and detected no virus on flowers in areas without apiaries, thus providing evidence that viruses are transmitted at flowers from infected honey bees. In controlled experiments using captive colonies in flight cages, I found that honey bees leave viruses on flowers but not equally across plant species. My results suggest that there are differences in virus ecology mediated by floral morphology and/or pollinator behavior. No bumble bees became infected in controlled experiments, indicating that virus transmission through plants is a rare event that is likely to require repeated exposure. The few studies examining viruses in bumble bees are generally limited to virus detection, resulting in little understanding of the conditions affecting virus titers. In honeybees, infections may remain latent, capable of replicating under certain conditions, such as immunosuppression induced by pesticide exposure. I tested whether exposure to imidacloprid, a neonicotinoid pesticide, affects virus titers in bumble bees. In previous honey bee studies, imidacloprid exposure increased virus titers. In contrast, I found that bumble bee exposure to imidacloprid decreased BQCV and DWV titers (χ42 < 20.873, p < 0.02). My findings suggest that virus-pesticide interactions are species-specific and results from honey bee studies should not be generalized across other bee species. Having found that honey bees are significant contributors of viruses to wild bees and flowers, I investigated how honey bee management practices affect disease spread and developed recommendations and tools to lesson the risk of spillover events. Honey bee disease may be exacerbated by migratory beekeeping which increases stress and opportunities for disease transmission. I experimentally tested whether migratory conditions contribute to disease spread in honey bees and found negative yet varying effects on bees suggesting that the effects of migratory practices may be ameliorated with rest time between pollination events. State apiary inspection programs are critical to controlling disease spread and reducing the risk of spillover. However, these programs are often resource constrained. I developed and deployed a toolkit that enables state programs to prioritize inspections and provide a platform for beekeeper education. Using novel data collected in Vermont, I discovered several promising avenues for future research and provided realistic recommendations to improve bee health.