Ce travail est consacré à la synthèse et à la caractérisation physico-chimique de nouveaux systèmes à base de polysaccharides naturels, le hyaluronane (HA) et le chitosane (CHI), présentant une transition sol-gel thermoréversible en milieu aqueux.<br />Ces réseaux tridimensionnels résultent d'interactions hydrophobes interchaînes entre des chaînes thermosensible d'un copolymère aléatoire d'unité oxyde d'éthylène et oxyde de propylène (POEP) greffées sur le squelette polysaccharidiques. Ces interactions sont induites par chauffage.<br />Afin d'évaluer l'influence des greffons des dérivés polysaccharides possédant différents degrés de substitution, le phénomène de thermoassociation a été étudié en milieu aqueux par des mesures rhéologiques en écoulement et en régime dynamique, de calorimétrie différentielle à balayage et de spectroscopie RMN 13C.<br />Ces systèmes sont sensibles à la variation de divers paramètres externes tels que la force ionique du milieu aqueux ou la concentration en polymères. <br />Les hydrogels obtenus au cours de ce travail présentent des applications potentielles dans les domaines biomédical, pharmaceutique et cosmétique.

Obtaining enantio pure drug molecules is a long standing challenge in asymmetric synthesis implying that the identification of enantiomers and the determination of enantiomeric purity from a racemic mixture are of profound importance. In achieving this target NMR spectroscopy has proven to be an excellent analytical tool. It is well known that normal achiral NMR solvents do not distinguish the spectra of enantiomers. On the other hand, the conversion of substrates to diastereomers using one of the enantiopure chiral auxiliaries, such as, chiral solvating agent, chiral derivatizing agent and chiral lanthanide shift reagent, circumvents this problem. The imposition of diasteomeric interactions circumvents this problem. There is a pool of chiral auxiliaries available in the literature, each of which is specific to molecules of certain functionalities and has its own advantages and limitations. These classical methods have two limitations as they demand the presence of a targeted functional group in the chiral molecule and utilize only chemical shifts to visualize enantiomers. On the other hand in chiral anisotropic medium, due to differential ordering effect, the order-sensitive NMR observables, viz. chemical shift anisotropies (∆σi), dipolar couplings (Dij) and for nuclei with spin >1/2 the quadrupolar couplings (Qi) have enormous power of exhibiting different spectrum for each enantiomer permitting their discrimination. Numerous weakly ordered chiral aligning media have been reported in the literature. Nevertheless there is a scarcity of water compatible medium. Research work presented in this thesis is focused on various aspects, such as, the discovery of new chiral aligning medium for the enantiodiscrimination of water soluble chiral molecules, potential utility of DNA liquid crystal for discrimination of amino acids, on-the-fly monitoring of enzyme kinetics and the preparation of novel composite liquid crystals, hydrogels and thin films. The derived results are discussed in different chapters. Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to NMR spectroscopy with special emphasis on the conceptual understanding of the tensorial interaction parameters, such as chemical shifts, scalar and dipolar couplings, quadrupolar couplings, effect of r.f pulses, basic introduction to 2D NMR experiments. Subsequently, a broad overview of the enantiomers, specification of their configurations, chirality without stereogenic carbon, chirality in molecules containing different atoms, are discussed. Following this a brief introduction to liquid crystals and their properties, their classification, their orientation in the magnetic field, order parameter are also discussed. The description on the chiral liquid crystals, the differential ordering effect, employment of the orientation dependent NMR interactions, utility of 2H NMR experiments for the visualization of enantiomers and the measurement of enantiomeric composition has been set out in brief. Chapter 2: As far as the organo soluble chiral molecules is concerned (in solvents such as, chloroform, dioxane, tetrahydrofuran and dimethylformamide), it has been well established that an ideal choice of chiral liquid crystal for enantiodiscrimination is poly-�-benzyl-L-glutamate (PBLG). Nevertheless, there is a scarcity of weak aligning medium for water soluble chiral molecules. This chapter introduces the chiral liquid crystal derived from the polysaccharide xanthan, which has numerous applications. The detailed discussion on the preparation of polysaccharide xanthan mesophase is given. The appearance of the mesophse is established by detecting the quadrupole split doublet of dissolved water. Subsequently enantiodiscrimination power of this new medium has been investigated on deuterated D/L-Alanine and (R/S)-β-butyrolactone. For such a purpose the selective 2D-SERF (SElective ReFocussing) experiment has been employed. It has been convincingly demonstrated that the medium has wide applicability for the discrimination of enantiomers, enantiotopic directions in prochiral molecules, measurement of enantiomeric excess and the RDCs in medium sized molecules. The new medium is sustainable over a wide range of temperature and concentration of ingredients, the mesophase is reversible, reproducible, easy to prepare besides being cost effective. It is possible to have the controlled tuning of the degree of order for specific application. Chapter 3: In this chapter the real discriminatory potential of DNA liquid crystalline phase has been explored. It is unambiguously established that; i) the fragmented DNA liquid crystal is able to differentiate between enantiomers of structurally different chiral amino acids; ii) the T1 (2H) values for L/D (alanine) is nearly equal indicating the similar dynamics for both the enantiomers, thus permitting the measurement of ee from the integral areas of the peaks of the contours of 2D spectrum; iii) the enantiotopic discrimination in prochiral compounds has also been successfully explored. Furthermore the analyses of NMR results yielded fruitful information on the analytical potential of DNA chiral liquid crystal, such as, (a) the chiral discrimination is effective on a large range of amino acids with spectral differences ΔΔʋQ‘s and ΔʋQ‘s varying from 80 to 338 Hz, and 50 to 900 Hz respectively; (b) the discrimination phenomenon remain active irrespective of the structure and the electronic nature (polarity) of the fourth substituent around the stereogenic center; (c) compared to an alkyl moiety, the presence of a terminal –OH or –SH group seems to slightly increase both the degree of alignment of the solute and the enantiodiscrimination efficiency compared to alanine; (d) The enantiodiscrimination can be detected easily not only on CD3 and CD groups, but also on CD2 sites exhibiting inequivalent diastereotopic directions; (e) discriminations with rather large differential ordering effect were obtained even for the sites that are situated far away from the asymmetric center; (f) The relative position of quadrupolar doublets from one 2H site to another can be reversed with regard to the absolute configuration (L/D). Chapter 4: Racemases recognize a chiral substrate such as (L-Alanine) and convert it into its enantiomer, i.e., (D-Alanine) and vice versa. Alanine racemase plays a vital role for certain bacteria, providing D-Alanine for peptidoglycan cell-wall biosynthesis. Elucidating the mechanism of enzymatic racemization is crucial for designing new inhibitors that may be useful as a novel class of antibiotics. This requires techniques to discriminate L-and D-Alanine and follow their concentrations as a function of time, so that one can determine the kinetic parameters and study the effect of inhibitors. In this chapter the utility of DNA liquid crystal media for in situ and real-time monitoring of the interconversion of L-and D-alanine-d3 by alanine racemase from Bacillus stearothermophilus has been demonstrated. The enantiomeric excess has been measured at different time intervals to monitor the enzymatic racemization at different time intervals in pseudo 2D NMR. The study unambiguously ascertains the reliability and robustness of utility of NMR in chiral anisotropic phase for monitoring the enzymatic racemization. The method thus provides new mechanistic insight and a better understanding of enzymatic reactions, in particular for alanine racemase. Chapter 5: In continuation with the development of weakly ordered liquid crystals, this chapter reports the spontaneous formation of composite graphene oxide (GO)/double stranded DNA (dsDNA) liquid crystals at higher concentrations of ingredients, and hydrogels at lower concentrations of ingredients, the process of which involves simple mixing in an aqueous phase has been demonstrated. The liquid crystalline phases and hydrogels have been characterized using optical polarized microscopy (OPM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Raman spectroscopy and 2H NMR spectroscopy. The observation of strong birefringence in the optical polarized microscope gives evidence for the formation of GO/dsDNA liquid crystals. The strong interaction between the dsDNA and GO was confirmed using Raman spectroscopic analysis. Furthermore, GO/dsDNA thin films have also been prepared and characterized using SEM and OPM. The GO/dsDNA thin film was prepared and its liquid crystal nature was established using OPM and 2H NMR. Importantly, the GO/dsDNA hydrogels were formed without any heat treatment to unwind dsDNA molecules and the porosity of hydrogels can be controlled by changing concentration of the dsDNA. This novel multifunctional composite liquid crystals and hydrogels of GO/dsDNA thus opens up new avenues for many applications like security papers, optical devices such as circular polarizers, reflective displays and drug delivery as well as tissue engineering using GO composite hydrogels.

La tomographie par émission de positons (TEP) est une modalité d’imagerie nucléaire puissante, permettant des mesures fonctionnelles non-invasive dans les cellules, les animaux et les humains avec une haute sensibilité et résolution. Les exosomes sont des vésicules extracellulaires de 30 à 120 nm qui peuvent transférer leur contenu cytoplasmique entre cellules, mais comprendre leurs cheminements in vivo reste un défi. Les hydrogels thermosensibles à base de chitosane ont été développés et sont sous optimisation pour diverses applications telles que l'embolisation des vaisseaux sanguins, l'administration de médicaments, l’'administration de lymphocytes et la réparation du cartilage et des disques intervertébraux. Il y a un besoin urgent de suivi in vivo à court terme pour évaluer la rétention des hydrogels et des exosomes. Le Hexadécyl-4- [18F]-fluorobenzoate ([18F]HFB) est un radiotraceur lipophile à longue chaîne qui est retenu dans les membranes cellulaires et les biomatériaux. Le but de ce travail était d'automatiser la radiosynthèse de [18F]HFB pour marquer des exosomes et des hydrogels. La radiosynthèse et la purification de [18F]HFB ont été réalisées en utilisant le synthétiseur de chimie commercial IBA Synthera®. [18F]HFB a été préparé via substitution du précurseur d’ammonium quaternaire par [18F]F-. Après une première purification via une cartouche C18, [18F]HFB a été élué avec de l'acétonitrile et purifié par HPLC. [18F]HFB a ensuite été reformulé dans une solution de DMSO (10%) après élimination du solvant HPLC sous azote, filtré et dilué dans une solution saline stérile. [18F]HFB a été obtenu en rendement radiochimique allant de 15 à 45% (corrigé pour désintégration), en haute pureté radiochimique et chimique, et dans un temps de synthèse total de 60 minutes. Les exosomes n'ont pas été marqués avec succès. Cependant, les hydrogels de chitosane ont démontré un marquage élevé, avec une stabilité du complexe >90%, même après 8 heures d’incubation en solution saline. La TEP avec [18F]HFB d'exosomes et de biomatériaux présente une approche novatrice pour déterminer leur distribution in vivo. / Positron emission tomography (PET) is a powerful nuclear imaging modality allowing for non-invasive functional measures in cells, animals and humans with high sensitivity. Exosomes are 30-120 nm extracellular vesicles that can transfer their cytoplasmic contents between cells, however, understanding where exosomes traffic in the body remains a challenge. Chitosan-based thermosensitive hydrogels have been developed and are currently under optimization for various applications such as blood vessel embolization, drug delivery, lymphocyte delivery systems, and cartilage and intervertebral disc repair. There is an urgent need for in vivo, short term follow-up of such procedures to assess the retention of hydrogels and exosomes at the site of injection. Hexadecyl-4-[18F]fluorobenzoate ([18F]HFB) is a long chain lipophilic radiotracer that has been reported to be retained within cell membranes or biomaterials. The aim of this work was to automate the radiosynthesis of [18F]HFB for labeling exosomes and chitosan-based hydrogels. The radiosynthesis and purification of [18F]HFB was done using the commercial IBA Synthera® chemistry synthesiser with the R&D IFP-cassette and HPLC module. As previously reported, [18F]HFB was prepared by [18F]F- substitution of the trimethyl ammonium triflate precursor in DMSO. After removal of unreacted [18F]F- and DMSO via a C18 light cartridge, [18F]HFB was eluted with acetonitrile and purified by semi-prep C18 HPLC. [18F]HFB was then reformulated in DMSO (10%) solution after removal of the HPLC solvent from the radioactive product peak under nitrogen, filtered, and diluted in sterile saline. [18F]HFB was obtained in radiochemical yield (isolated after HPLC and evaporation) ranging from 15 – 45% (decay-corrected), high radiochemical and chemical purities, and within a total synthesis time of 60 mins. Exosomes were not successfully labeled. However, high labeling efficiency was observed with the chitosan hydrogels displaying a stability >90%, even after 8 hours incubation in saline. PET imaging with [18F]HFB of exosomes and biomaterials presents a novel approach to determining their in vivo distribution.

Chapter 1. Supramolecular Gels and their Applications Supramolecular gels are viscoelastic materials composed of a solid like three dimensional fibrillary network that is embedded in a liquid. Supramolecular gels are derived from low molecular weight compounds (typically MW < 3000). In the 1990s, the investigations on gels were mainly focused on designing new gelator molecules. However, during the last decade, research focus shifted towards designing functional gels and their applications. As a result of extensive work in this area, gels have been found to have varied applications in the templated synthesis of inorganic nanomaterials, hybrid materials, light harvesting systems, as responsive system and sensors, and also in drug delivery, tissue engineering etc. This chapter gives an introduction to supramolecular hydrogels/organogels and relevant bile acid chemistry touching upon the gelation properties of the bile acid derivatives. Diverse applications of the supramolecular gels are also illustrated with several examples. Scheme 1. Various applications of functional supramolecular gels Chapter 2. Bile Acid derived novel Hydrogelators Part 1. Hydrogelation of Bile acid protected Amino acids and Hybrid Materials Hydrogels from low molecular weight molecules have significant importance in biomedical applications. In this chapter, we report injectable hydrogel formation from bile acid conjugates of various amino acids. Hydrogel formation was found to be dependent on multiple factors such as bile acid backbone structure, linkage between the bile acid and the amino acid, pH etc. Single crystal structures of lithocholyl phenylalanine, lithocholyl-glycine, lithocholyl-L valine and lithocholyl-L alanine were also determined. Finally, the hydrogel frameworks were utilized to produce hybrid materials with Gold and ZnO nanoparticles. Scheme 2. (a) Crystal structure of LC-LF-OH gelator molecule, (b) photograph of gel, (c) SEM and (d) AFM image of LC-LF-OH xerogel Part 2. Hydrogelation of bile acid-dipeptide conjugates and in situ synthesis of silver and gold nanoparticles in the hydrogel matrix Fabricating supramolecular hydrogels with embedded metal nanostructures are important for the design of novel hybrid nanocomposite materials for diverse applications such as bio sensing and chemo sensing platforms, catalytic and antibacterial functional materials etc. Supramolecular self-assembly of bile acid-dipeptide conjugates have led to the formation of new supramolecular hydrogels. Gelation of these molecules depends strongly on the hydrophobic character of the bile acids. Ag+ and Au3+ salts were incorporated in the hydrogels, and photo reduction and chemical reduction led to the in situ generation of Ag and Au NPs in these supramolecular hydrogels without the addition of any external stabilizing agent. The color, size and shape of silver nanoparticles formed by photo reduction depended on the amino acid residue on the side chain. Furthermore, the hydrogel-Ag nanocomposite was tested for its antimicrobial activity. Scheme 3. Bile acid based dipeptide hydrogelators and soft hybrid materials Chapter 3. Sonogels of bile salts of In(III): use in the formation of self-templated indium sulfide nanostructures In this chapter, facile hydrogel formation by Indium(III) cholate and deoxy cholate are reported. When In(III) solution was added to aqueous solutions of sodium cholate and sodium deoxy cholate and sonicated, the mixtures formed gels. The gels thus obtained were translucent/turbid and thermos irreversible. Rheological measurements showed that all of them could be classified as viscoelastic soft solids. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy showed typical entangled three dimensional fibrous networks. The In-Ch hydrogel were further used to prepare nanostructured In2S3 in which the cholate units possibly acted as a surfactant to confine the growth of the Nano flakes. Scheme 4. In-Ch hydrogel (Photograph and SEM image of In-Ch gel) Chapter 4. Palladium-Hydrogel Nanocomposite for C-C Coupling Reactions Supported metallic nanoparticles are important composite materials owing to their enormous potential for applications in various fields. This chapter describes the in situ formation of palladium nanoparticles in a calcium-cholate (Ca-Ch) hydrogel by reduction with sodium cyan borohydride. The hydrogel matrix appeared to assist the controlled growth as well as stabilization of palladium nanoparticles. The palladium nanoparticle/Ca-Ch hydrogel hybrid was characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, PdNP/Ca-Ch hybrid xerogel was shown to act as an active catalyst for Suzuki reaction under aqueous aerobic conditions, up to 4 cycles. This PdNP/Ca-Ch xerogel retained its catalytic activities on storage for several months. Scheme 5. Palladium-hydrogel nanocomposite for C-C coupling reactions in water Chapter 5. Sensitization of Terbium/Europium in self-assembled cholate hydrogel: An approach towards the detection of amine vapours "Luminescent" lanthanides have intrinsic low molar absorptivity, although this problem can be addressed by complexing the lanthanide ion with suitable chelating ligands which improve the luminescence properties drastically. However the design of such systems often involves careful planning and laborious synthetic steps. It is therefore desirable to have a simpler way to sensitize lanthanides with high efficiency. It was observed in our group that trivalent lanthanides formed hydrogels on the addition of sodium cholate. This chapter describes the discovery of the several biphenyl derivatives (such as 4-biphenylcarbaxaldehyde, 4-acetylbiphenyl) for sensitization of Tb(III) and Eu(III) in lanthanide hydrogels. Sensitization of Tb(III) and Eu(III) were observed by doping was characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Furthermore, PdNP/Ca-Ch hybrid xerogel was shown to act as an active catalyst for Suzuki reaction under aqueous aerobic conditions, up to 4 cycles. This PdNP/Ca-Ch xerogel retained its catalytic activities on storage for several months. Scheme 6. Schematic representation of the sensitization process (the arrangement of themolecules in the gel fiber is arbitrary)(For figures pl refer the abstract pdf file)

This thesis is focused on the development and characterization of hydrogels containing humic substances with possible use in cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. This work follows on the bachelor thesis, theoretical and experimental part is based on already acquired knowledge. The aim of this work was to develop a literature review focusing on the potential use humic gels in practice and also to enhance the consistency of other active ingredients. Based on this literature review, the main aim was to prepare model humic hydrogels with selected active ingredients and their characterization by basic methods of material analysis. These basic methods were especially rheology and visual assessment of consistency during the preparation, then the samples were subjected process of drying and swelling. Experimental results showed considerable influences during the preparation and composition of each sample, which then reflected in their structure and consistency. Furthermore, it was found that the suitable composition and combination of ingredients form hydrogels acceptable characteristics for further use in cosmetic or pharmaceutical applications.

The overall thrust of this dissertation is to gain a comprehensive understanding over the factors that govern the performance and behavior of ultra-thin, cross-linked polymer films. Poly(NIPAAm) was used as a model polymer to study volume phase transition in surface tethered networks. Poly(NIPAAm) undergoes a reversible phase transition at approximately 32°C between a swollen hydrophilic random coil to a collapsed hydrophobic globule state, thought to be caused by increased hydrophobic attractions between the isopropyl groups at elevated temperatures. We present a simple photochemical technique for fabricating structured polymer networks, enabling the construction of responsive surfaces with unique properties. The approach is based on the photo-cross-linking of copolymers synthesized from N-isopropylacrylamide and methacroyloxybenzophenone (MaBP). In order correlate layer swelling to the MaBP content, we have studied the swelling behavior of such layers in contact with aqueous solutions with neutron reflection. The cross-linked networks provide a three-dimensional scaffold to host a variety of functionalities. These networks serve as a platform which can be used to amplify small local perturbations induced by various stimuli like temperature, pH, solvent, ionic strength and peptide modified hydrogels to bring about a macroscopic change. Neutron reflection experiments have shown that the volume-phase transition of a surface-tethered, cross-linked poly(NIPAAm) network coincided with the two-phase region of uncross-linked poly(NIPAAm) in solution. Parallel measurements with ATR-FTIR investigating the effect of temperature, pH and salts suggest that the discontinuous transition is the result of cooperative dehydration of the isopropyl groups, with water remaining confined between amide groups in the collapsed state as weakly hydrogen bonded bridges. Hybrid polymers with specific peptide sequences have shown specific response to external cues such as pH and metal ions exhibiting unique phase behavior.

Biological hydrogels such as collagen and gelatin are highly attractive materials for tissue engineering and biomedicine. Due to their excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability, they represent promising candidates in regenerative medicine, cell culture, tissue replacement and wound dressing applications. Thereby, precisely tuned material properties are indispensable for customization. High-energy electron-treatment is a highly favourable crosslinking technique to tailor the material properties. In five sub-projects, this thesis investigates the potential of high-energy electron-treatment to precisely modify collagen hydrogels, to develop thermo- as well as hydration-sensitive systems and functional surfaces from gelatin for biomedical applications. The first sub-project focusses on the modification of collagen hydrogels by electron-induced crosslinking with potential application as biomimetic extracellular matrix material. Thereby, it is shown that the material properties can be precisely tailored by adapting electron-induced crosslinking while high cytocompatibility is maintained. Within the second sub-project, an electron-crosslinking-induced shape-memory effect in gelatin is described in order to develop a thermo-responsive system. The effect is described experimentally as well as theoretically to demonstrate the fundamental physical processes. The third sub-project develops an electroncrosslinked hydration-sensitive gelatin system. The work discusses how swelling of electroncrosslinked gelatin is influenced by the pH-value and salt concentration of the swelling liquid. Thereby, response of the hydration-sensitive gelatin system can be further modified towards biological actuatoric systems. The fourth sub-project develops a two-step process to mechanically pattern gelatin surfaces. Within the first step, thin gelatin surfaces are mechanically patterned by a highly focussed electron beam. In a second step, they are stabilized by homogeneous electron-crosslinking for applications at physiological conditions. Another method to develop functional gelatin surfaces is described in the last sub-project. Here, gelatin is topographically patterned via a moulding technique. The resulting micro-structures are then stabilized via electron-crosslinking. In addition, the presented work investigates pattern transfer, long time stability at physiological conditions as well as cytocompatibility.:1 Introduction and Objective 1.1 Biomimetic ECM Models 1.2 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels 1.3 Functional Hydrogel Surfaces 2 General Background 2.1 Hydrogels 2.1.1 Collagen 2.1.2 Gelatin 2.2 Polymer Crosslinking 2.2.1 High-Energy Electron-Treatment of Polymers 2.2.2 Electron-Irradiation-Induced Crosslinking of Gelatin 2.3 High-Energy Electron Accelerator 3 Cumulative Part 3.1 High-Energy Electron-Induced Modification of Collagen 3.2 Thermo-Responsive Gelatin System 3.3 Hydration-Responsive Gelatin System 3.4 Mechanically Patterned Gelatin Surfaces 3.5 Topographically Patterned Gelatin Surfaces 4 Summary and Conclusion 5 Outlook Bibliography Author Contributions List of Abbreviations List of Figures Acknowledgements Scientific Curriculum Vitae Publication List Selbstständigkeitserklärung / Biologische Hydrogele wie Kollagen und Gelatine sind wichtige Materialien vor allem in biomedizinischen Anwendungsbereichen. Durch deren exzellente Biokompatibilität und biologische Abbaubarkeit werden sie vor allem bei der Züchtung von biomimetischem Gewebe, in der Zellkultur, als Gewebeersatz in der regenerativen Medizin oder auch als Wundverband eingesetzt. In der Verwendung solcher Materialien besteht eine wesentliche Herausforderung darin, deren Eigenschaften so präzise wie möglich einzustellen, um speziell angepasste Substrate und Gewebe entwickeln zu können. Eine äußerst vorteilhafte Methode zu Adaptierung der Materialeigenschaften ist die elektronenstrahlbasierte Vernetzung, die auf die Verwendung zusätzlicher chemischer Vernetzer verzichtet. Die vorgelegte Arbeit untersucht in fünf Teilprojekten das Potential von Elektronenstrahlvernetzung zur Modifizierung von Kollagen- sowie Gelatinehydrogelen für biomedizinische Anwendungen. Das erste Teilprojekt fokussiert sich auf die Auswirkungen hochenergetischer Elektronen auf Kollagenhydrogele und deren Eigenschaften für potentielle Anwendungen als biomimetisches Modell der extrazellulären Matrix. Dabei wird gezeigt, dass sich die Materialeigenschaften in Abhängigkeit der Elektronenbestrahlung präzise einstellen lassen und dass diese Gele eine hohe Zellkompatibilität aufweisen. Das zweite Teilprojekt beschreibt den Effekt des thermischen Formgedächtnisses in Gelatine nach Elektronenstrahlvernetzung und dessen Potential für die Entwicklung biologischer Aktuatoren. Die Effizienz des Formgedächtniseffekts wird in diesem Teilprojekt ausführlich theoretisch beschrieben und mit experimentellen Untersuchungen an Gelatine verglichen. Im dritten Teilprojekt wird ein elektronenstrahlvernetztes, hydrations-responsives Gelatinesystem beschrieben. Zusätzlich wird der Einfluss von pH-Wert und Salzkonzentration der Quelllösung auf das Quellen von elektronenstrahlvernetzter Gelatine untersucht um das Reaktionsverhalten noch präziser einstellen zu können. Das vierte Teilprojekt beschreibt einen Zwei-Schritt-Prozess, bei dem dünne Gelatineschichten mittels hochenergetischer Elektronen mechanisch funktionalisiert werden können. Dabei wird in einem ersten Schritt die Oberfläche durch hoch fokussierte Elektronen mechanisch strukturiert, um im zweiten Schritt mittels homogener Elektronenstrahlvernetzung für die Anwendung unter physiologischen Bedingungen stabilisiert zu werden. Eine weitere Methode zur Funktionalisierung der Oberfläche von Gelatinehydrogelen wird im letzten Teilprojekt dieser Arbeit dokumentiert. Dabei werden topographische Mikrostrukturen auf Gelatineoberflächen aufgebracht und mittels Elektronenstrahlvernetzung stabilisiert. Dieses Teilprojekt untersucht zusätzlich den Strukturtransfer, die Langzeitstabilität unter physiologischen Bedingungen sowie die Zellkompatibilität.:1 Introduction and Objective 1.1 Biomimetic ECM Models 1.2 Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels 1.3 Functional Hydrogel Surfaces 2 General Background 2.1 Hydrogels 2.1.1 Collagen 2.1.2 Gelatin 2.2 Polymer Crosslinking 2.2.1 High-Energy Electron-Treatment of Polymers 2.2.2 Electron-Irradiation-Induced Crosslinking of Gelatin 2.3 High-Energy Electron Accelerator 3 Cumulative Part 3.1 High-Energy Electron-Induced Modification of Collagen 3.2 Thermo-Responsive Gelatin System 3.3 Hydration-Responsive Gelatin System 3.4 Mechanically Patterned Gelatin Surfaces 3.5 Topographically Patterned Gelatin Surfaces 4 Summary and Conclusion 5 Outlook Bibliography Author Contributions List of Abbreviations List of Figures Acknowledgements Scientific Curriculum Vitae Publication List Selbstständigkeitserklärung

The majority of cancer research projects mainly focus on the epithelial cancer cell, while the role of the tumour stroma has been largely neglected. Conventional 2D techniques, such as well plates and other kinds of tissue culture plastic, and animal models are mainly used to broaden our understanding of how tumours arise, develop, and induce metastasis. However, there is accumulating evidence suggesting a tremendous impact of the non‐cancerous tumour stroma on carcinogenesis, while other publications illustrate the great importance of advanced 3D in vitro models for cancer research. The overall goal of this work was to investigate how cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs; the most abundant component in the tumour stroma) and normal prostate fibroblasts (NPFs), isolated from patients diagnosed with aggressive forms of prostate cancer, contribute to angiogenesis, an important hallmark of cancer progression. For this purpose, a 3D in vitro angiogenesis co‐culture model was established. At first, two (semi‐) synthetic hydrogel platforms, gelatine methacrylate (GelMA) and star‐shaped (star)PEG‐heparin hydrogels were characterised and their physicochemical properties were compared with each other. Interestingly, GelMA gels shrank while starPEG‐heparin gels swelled in cell culture medium over the course of 24 hours. The cell concentration, in addition to the stiffness, was critical for the formation of endothelial networks, and the knowledge of swelling behaviour enabled the adjustment of initial cell density to ensure the density between both gel types was comparable. Moreover, preliminary tests with mesenchymal stem cells demonstrated that the hydrogel can be actively remodelled, as evaluated by stiffness parameters at day one and seven of incubation. Growth factors (GFs) affect cellular fate and behaviour, and storage, presentation and administration of such chemokines can be critical for certain cellular applications. Due to the high anionic charge density of heparin, starPEG‐heparin hydrogels are known to reversibly immobilise several GFs and thereby might mimic the GF reservoir of the extra cellular matrix. Thus, transport processes of GFs with low and high heparin affinity inside these hydrogels were analysed by fluorescence correlation spectroscopy and a bulk diffusion approach. Results indicated that diffusion constants were synergistically decreased with increasing size and heparin affinity of the diffusant. Next, the capability of endothelial cells (ECs) to self‐assemble and organise into 3D capillary networks was tested in GelMA, starPEG‐heparin and Matrigel hydrogels. Only starPEG‐heparin hydrogels allowed the formation of interconnected capillaries in macroscopic hydrogel samples. However, as it is widely used to test for pro‐ and anti‐angiogenic agents, the 2D Matrigel angiogenesis assay was included for subsequent co‐culture experiments of ECs and fibroblasts in order to investigate how the stromal cells influence the formation of endothelial networks. For a detailed characterisation of 3D structures, a conventionally applied 2D method (Maximum Intensity Projection for 3D reconstructed images, MIP) was compared to an optimised 3D analysing tool. As a result, it was discovered that MIP analysis did not allow for an accurate determination of 3D endothelial network parameters, and can result in misleading interpretations of the data set. Indirect co‐cultures of hydrogel‐embedded ECs with a 2D layer of fibroblasts showed that fibroblast‐derived soluble factors, including stromal cell‐derived factor 1 and interleukin 8, affected endothelial network properties. However, only co‐encapsulation of ECs and fibroblasts in starPEG‐heparin hydrogel discs revealed remarkable changes in endothelial network parameters between CAF and NPF samples. In detail, the total length and branching of the capillaries was increased. For two donor pairs, the diameter of capillaries was decreased in CAF samples compared to NPF samples, underlining the high physiological relevance of this model. In contrast, significant differences in 2D Matrigel assays were not detected between, CAF, NPF and control (ECs only) samples. In summary, a 3D angiogenesis co‐culture system was successfully developed and used to characterise stromal‐endothelial interactions in detail. The combination of advanced biomaterials (starPEG‐heparin) and 3D analysing techniques goes beyond conventional 2D in vitro cancer research, and opens new avenues for the development of more complex models to further improve the acquisition of more biologically relevant data.

Microfluidics covers the science of manipulating small quantities of fluids using microscale devices with great potential in analysis, multiplexing, automation and high-throughput screening. Compared to conventional systems, microfluidics benefits from miniaturization resulting in shortened time of experiments, decreased sample and reagent consumptions as well as reduced overall costs. For microfluidic devices where further weight and cost reduction is additionally required, stimuli-responsive hydrogels are particularly interesting materials since they can convert an environmental stimulus directly to mechanical work without any extra power source. Hydrogels are used as chemostats, micropumps, and chemo-mechanical valves in microfluidics. Existing studies about hydrogels for flow control reported on hydrogels responsive to only one stimulus, including temperature, pH value, and solvent. Combining temperature and pH stimuli within one material is an interesting approach, which allows internal as well as external flow control and broadens potential applications. Among the variety of temperature- and pH-responsive monomers, N-isopropylacrylamide (NiPAAm) and acrylic acid (AA) are considered as ideal building blocks to obtain a hydrogel with pronounced stimuli response. There are different architectures for realizing a temperature- and pH-responsive hydrogel with NiPAAm and AA (e.g. copolymer gels, interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs), semi-IPNs, or graft copolymer gels). Each approach has its inherent benefits and disadvantages. Grafted hydrogels with a temperature-responsive backbone and pH-responsive graft chains are a promising architecture overcoming drawbacks of copolymer gels (loss of thermoresponsive behavior due to the comonomer), interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs, difficult fabrication of structured particles via soft lithography), and semi-IPNs (leakage of penetrating polymer). However, studies about multi-responsive grafted hydrogels for flow control in microfluidics are comparatively rare and further research is needed to emphasize their real potential. For this reason, the overall aim of this work was the synthesis of temperature- and pH-responsive grafted hydrogels based on NiPAAm and AA for flow control in microfluidics. This required the synthesis of a pH-responsive macromonomer by RAFT polymerization. As a suitable chain transfer agent with a carboxylic acid group for an end-group functionalization, 2-(dodecyl-thiocarbonothioylthio)-2-methylpropionic (DTP) acid was employed. The approach towards the synthesis of the pH-responsive macromonomer based on two key steps: (i) attaching a functional group, which retains during RAFT polymerization, and (ii) conducting the RAFT polymerization to synthesize the pH-responsive macromonomer. In total, four functionalizations for the macromonomer were investigated, including allyl, unconjugated vinyl, acrylamide, and styrene. End-group analysis and solubility tests revealed that macromonomers with a styrene functionalization are suitable for the synthesis of graft copolymer gels. A series of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels with a PNiPAAm backbone and PAA-styrene graft chains (Mn = 4200 g/mol, Mw/Mn = 1.6) were prepared and characterized. The main goal was to identify suitable stimuli for an application as a chemo-mechanical valve and to show reversibility of the swelling and shrinking process. Importantly, the temperature sensitivity should be retained, while a pH response needs to be introduced. Equilibrium swelling studies quantified with the response ratio revealed that a grafting density of PAA-styrene between 0.25 and 1 mol-% provides a suitable response towards temperature, pH, salt, and solvent. Furthermore, the swelling and shrinking process is highly reproducible over four consecutive cycles for all four stimuli. In order to evaluate the swelling kinetics of grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels, the collective diffusion model extended by a volume specific surface was applied. The determined cooperative diffusion coefficients of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene indicated faster response time with increasing PAA-styrene content. Remarkably, net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene containing 1 mol-% PAA-styrene exhibited an accelerated swelling rate by a factor of 9 compared to pure net-PNiPAAm. Rheological analysis of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene showed that an increasing graft density leads to decreasing mechanical stability. The photopolymerization experiments showed that the gelation time linearly increases with the grafting density. Grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were tested in two fluidic setups for flow control. A straightforward fluidic platform was developed consisting of a fluid reservoir, an inlet channel, an actuator chamber and an outlet channel. The actuator chamber was filled with crushed hydrogel particles. Accordingly, the fluid flow was directed by the active resistance of the hydrogel particles in the actuator chamber (i.e. swelling degree) and allowed flow control by the local environmental conditions. Flow rate studies showed that the fluid flow throttles when the inlet channel was provided with a solution in which the hydrogel swells (pH 9 buffer solution at room temperature). In contrast, the hydrogel-based valve opens immediately when a solution was used in which the hydrogel collapses. The advantageous properties of net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene were highlighted by using pH, salt and solvent stimulus in one experiment. Remarkably, the opening and closing function was reversible over six consecutive cycles. As part of a collaboration project with the chair of polymeric microsystems within the Cluster of Excellence Center for Advancing Electronics Dresden (A. Richter and P. Frank), membrane assures hydraulic coupling in a chemo-fluidic membrane transistor (CFMT) and grafted net-PNiPAAm-g-PAA-styrene hydrogels were combined to emphasize the potential of both systems. Flow rate studies showed that 4 different stimuli can be used to control the opening and closing state of the CFMT. Multiple opening and closing cycles revealed no considerable changes in the valve function emphasizing a high potential for an application in microfluidics.

Stimuli sensitive polymers and hydrogels respond with large property changes to small physical and chemical stimuli (e.g. temperature, pH, ionic strength). The bulk behavior of these polymers is widely studied and they show an isotropic swelling. However, thin hydrogel layers of polymers on a substrate show a swelling behavior, which is constrained in some way. Therefore, size, confinement, patternability, response time and transition temperature of thin hydrogel layers are the most important parameters in technological applications and this study focuses on the investigation of these above-mentioned parameters. The aim of this study involves synthesis, characterization and application of thin photo-crosslinked hydrogel layers. Dimethylmaleimide (DMI) moiety was incorporated in the polymers chains and was used to introduce photo-crosslinking by [2+2] cyclodimerization reaction in the presence of UV irradiation. The following photo-crosslinkers based on DMI group were synthesized ? - Acrylate photo-crosslinker (DMIAm) - Acrylamide photo-crosslinker (DMIAAm) - Polyol photo-crosslinker (DMIPA, DMIPACl) The conventional free radical polymerization of above listed photo-crosslinker with its respective monomer resulted in formation of photo-crosslinkable polymers of (a) HEMA, (b) DMAAm, (c) NIPAAm/DMAAm, (d) NIPAAm/Cyclam. The properties of these polymers were investigated by NMR, UV-VIS spectroscopy, GPC and SPR. Thin hydrogel layers were prepared by spin coating on gold-coated LaSFN9 glass. The covalent attachment to the surface was achieved through an adhesion promoter. Swelling behavior of the thin polymer layers was thoroughly investigated by Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) Spectroscopy and Optical Waveguide Spectroscopy (OWS). SPR and OWS gave a wide range of information regarding the film thickness, swelling ratio, refractive index, and volume degree of swelling of the thin hydrogel layer. For hydrophilic photo-crosslinked hydrogel layers of HEMA and DMAAm, it was observed that the volume degree of swelling was independent of temperature changes but was dependent on the photo-crosslinker mol-% in the polymer. These surface attached thin hydrogel layer exhibited an anisotropic swelling. For NIPAAm photo-crosslinked hydrogel layers with DMAAm as a hydrophilic monomer, it was observed that both transition temperature (Tc) and volume degree of swelling increases with increase in the mol-% of DMAAm. To study the effect of film thickness on Tc and volume degree of swelling, hydrogels with wide range of film thickness were prepared and investigated by SPR. These results provided vital information on the swelling behavior of surface attached hydrogel layer and showed the versatility of SPR instrument for studying thin hydrogel layers. Later part of project involved synthesis of multilayer hydrogel assembly involving a thermoresponsive polymer and a hydrophilic polymer. The combination of two layers with photo-crosslinkable DMAAm polymer as base layer and photo-crosslinkable NIPAAm polymer as top layer formulate a multilayer assembly where, the base layer only swells in response to temperature and the top layer shows temperature dependent swelling. Photo-crosslinked hydrogel layers of NIPAAm, DMAAm and HEMA shows a high-resolution patterns when irradiated by UV light through a chromium mask. At last this study focused on an important application of these hydrogel layers for cell attachment processes. Cell growth, proliferation and spreading shows a biocompatible nature of these hydrogel surfaces. Such thermoresponsive photo-crosslinkable multilayer structure forms bases for future projects involving their use in actuator material and cell-attachment processes.