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Adsorption of proteins at interfaces has an important role in biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. Indeed, several undesirable processes are related to protein adsorption, as for example: fouling of contact lenses, clotting on blood contacting devices, triggering inammation around articial organs, diminished circulation time of therapeutic proteins and drug bearing liposomes. Neutral water soluble polymers, such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), are used to repress protein adsorption: by coating the surface with a polymer brush, a "cushion" is created between the protein and the surface, that can reduce, or even completely repress the adsorption. Understanding the mechanism that inhibits the adsorption at interfaces is an active field of research, and could lead to relevant improvements in biomaterials performances and design. A clear understanding of the mechanism of protein adsorption onto polymer brushes is still missing. The first models describing the interactions of a polymer brush with adsorbing particles predicted two adsorption modes: primary adsorption at the grafting surface, and secondary adsorption at the outer edge of the brush (occurring for large cylindrical proteins). Primary adsorption can be repressed by increasing the grafting density of the brush, and secondary adsorption by increasing its thickness, in agreement with the experiments reported in the literature. But experimental evidences (a maximum in the adsorbed amount observed for long brushes) suggested then the existence of a third mode: ternary adsorption within the brush itself, due to attractive interactions between the protein and the brush. Standard techniques can in general only probe the total adsorbed amount. The aim of this work was to separate primary and ternary adsorption isotherms, by using neutron reectivity and deuterated proteins. As neutrons interact differently with hydrogen and deuterium atoms, the contrast between the hydrogenated brush and the deuterated protein is high enough to separate the two contributions. We studied the adsorption of deuterated myoglobin on PEG brushes with different degrees of polymerisation (N = 56, 146 and 770), and as a function of the area per grafted chain. The contribution of primary and ternary adsorption was separated for the different systems, and the adsorbed amount was extracted and the adsorption isotherms compared to the theoretical predictions. The ability to distinguish between the different adsorption modes, and the quantification of their relative contribution to the overall amount of adsorbed proteins, represents a major advance in optimising surface properties. In particular, the occurrence of ternary adsorption onto PEG brushes affects their status as tool for repressing protein adsorption. L’adsorption de protéines aux interfaces a un rôle important pour certaines applications pharmaceutiques ou biotechnologiques. En effet, plusieurs processus indésirables sont liés à l’adsorption de protéines, par exemple l’encrassement de lentilles de contact, la coagulation dans des appareils contenant du sang, l’inflammation d’organes artificiels ou encore la diminution du temps de circulation dans le corps de protéines ou liposomes thérapeutiques. Certains polymères, tels que le polyéthylène glycol (PEG), sont utilisés pour réprimer l’adsorption de protéines : en greffant une brosse de PEG sur la surface, une couche est créée entre la protéine et celle-ci qui diminue, voire même réprime complètement l’adsorption. Comprendre le mécanisme qui entrave l’adsorption aux interfaces est un sujet de recherche actif, qui pourrait mener à des améliorations significatives dans la conception de biomatériaux. À ce jour, la compréhension du mécanisme d’adsorption de protéines sur des brosses de polymère n’est pas claire. Les premiers modèles décrivant les interactions entre brosses de polymères et particules adsorbantes prédisaient deux modes d’adsorption : l’adsorption primaire sur la surface de greffage, et l’adsorption secondaire à l’extérieur de la brosse (pour les grandes protéines cylindriques uniquement). L’adsorption primaire peut-être réprimée en augmentant la densité de greffage de la brosse, et l’adsorption secondaire en augmentant son épaisseur, en accord avec les expériences reportées dans la littérature. Mais d’autres évidences expérimentales (un maximum dans la quantité adsorbée observé pour les brosses longues) ont ensuite suggéré l’existence d’un troisième mode : l’adsorption ternaire à l’intérieur même de la brosse, due aux interactions attractives entre la protéine et la brosse. Les techniques standards peuvent en général mesurer la quantité adsorbée totale. Le but de ce travail était de séparer les isothermes d’adsorption primaire et ternaire, en utilisant la réflectivité de neutrons et des protéines deutérées. Comme les neutrons interagissent différemment avec les atomes d’hydrogène ou de deutérium, le contraste entre la brosse hydrogénée et la protéine deutérée est ainsi suffisant pour séparer les deux contributions. Nous avons étudié l’adsorption de myoglobine deutérée sur des brosses de PEG avec différents degrés de polymérisation (N = 56, 146 and 770), en fonction de l’aire par chaîne Σ. La contribution des adsorptions primaire et ternaire put être séparée pour les différents systèmes, et les quantités adsorbées extraites pour finalement comparer les isothermes d’adsorption aux prédictions théoriques. La possibilité de distinguer les différents modes d’adsorption, et la quantification de leur contribution relative à la quantité totale de protéines adsorbées représente une avancée majeure dans l’optimisation des propriétés des surfaces. L’adsorption ternaire dans les brosses de PEG en particulier remet en question leur utilisation pour réprimer l’adsorption de protéines.

This dissertation describes a structural investigation of hyaluronan (HA) with neutron scattering techniques. HA is a natural biopolymer and one of the major components of the extracellular matrix, synovial fluid, and vitreous humor.  It is used in several biomedical applications like tissue engineering, drug delivery, and treatment of osteoarthritis. Although HA is extensively studied, very little is known about its three-dimensional conformation and how it interacts with ions and other molecules. The study aims to understand the bulk structure of a cross-linked HA hydrogel, as well as the conformational arrangement of HA at solid-liquid interfaces. In addition, the structural changes of HA are investigated by simulation of physiological environments, such as changes in ions, interactions with nanoparticles, and proteins etc. Small-angle neutron scattering and neutron reflectivity are the two main techniques applied to investigate the nanostructure of hyaluronan in its original, hydrated state. The present study on hydrogels shows that they possess inhomogeneous structures best described with two correlation lengths, one of the order of a few nanometers and the other in the order of few hundred nanometers. These gels are made up of dense polymer-rich clusters linked to each other. The polymer concentration and mixing governs the connectivity between these clusters, which in turn determines the viscoelastic properties of the gels. Surface-tethered HA at a solid-liquid interface is best described with a smooth varying density profile. The shape of this profile depends on the immobilization chemistry, the deposition protocol, and the ionic interactions. HA could be suitably modified to enhance adherence to metal surfaces, as well as incorporation of proteins like growth factors with tunable release properties. This could be exploited for surface coating of implants with bioactive molecules. The knowledge gained from this work would significantly help to develop future biomaterials and surface coatings of implants and biomedical devices.

Keratins are important structural components of hair and skin. There has been extensive study of keratins from the health and medical perspectives, although little work has been done to date to investigate their basic physicochemical properties in the form of biomaterials. The work presented in this thesis aimed to study surface and interfacial adsorption and solution aggregation of water soluble keratin polypeptides (made available by previous work within the research group). A range of physical techniques were employed including spectroscopic ellipsometry (SE), neutron reflection (NR), dual polarisation interferometry (DPI), quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation (QCM-D), dynamic light scattering (DLS) and small-angle neutron scattering (SANS).A major technical advantage of the neutron techniques is the use of hydrogen/deuterium substitution to enhance structural resolution. This approach was explored to study the interaction of keratins with both conventional surfactants and novel biosurfactants. The work presented comprises four results chapters. The first examines and compares four widely used interfacial techniques, SE, DPI, QCM-D and NR, by studying the adsorption of C12E6 at the silicon oxide/water interface. Whilst the data exhibits a large degree of consistency in the interfacially adsorbed amount, each technique helped reveal unique structural information with a high degree of complementarity. The second results chapter reports on findings regarding the properties of keratin polypeptides in surface adsorption and solution aggregation. It was found that the keratins adsorbed strongly on the surface of water, and formed rugby-shaped nanoaggregates in solution, the size and shape of which responded to salt concentration. The third results chapter reports on the interfacial behaviour of keratin/surfactants complexes in bulk solution, with cationic DTAB and anionic SDS as model conventional surfactants. It was found that both the electrostatic and hydrophobic forces contributed strongly to the surface adsorption processes. The final results chapter reports on interactions of a coated keratin film with novel biosurfactants including rhamnolipids (R1 and R2 with 1 and 2 sugar head(s), respectively) and Mel-C. The keratin films formed were found to be exceptionally stable and reproducible below pH 8, and these films could be widely used as model keratin substrates for screening their binding with surfactants and bioactive molecules. Both rhamnolipids and Mel-C exhibited strong adsorption onto the keratin substrate and interestingly, whilst R1 exhibited a completely reversible adsorption, R2 showed only a partially reversible adsorption. Mel-C showed some degree of irreversible adsorption similar to R2 and exhibited the strongest adsorption at around pH 4-5. These results show mild interactions with the keratin substrate, but indicate that the extent of adsorption and desorption could be manipulated by surfactant structure or solution conditions. The findings presented in this thesis are fundamental in aiding the development of the use of keratin polypeptides as biomaterials, in applications such as personal care. The work is also highly relevant to the understanding of the interactions between surfactants and keratin molecules at interfaces and in solution.

Pregnancy tests and related immunoassays are heavily dependent on specific and non-specific protein adsorption. These interfacial processes are affected by many factors that influence the in situ conformations of interfacially immobilised antibodies. This thesis examines a number of representative features with dual polarisation interferometry (DPI) and neutron reflection (NR), thus combining real-time dynamic monitoring with high interfacial structural resolution. Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was initially used as a model system to compare the surface coverage and thickness measurements of DPI and NR. The results show that DPI and NR provided similar surface coverage data but the measured thicknesses differed at BSA concentrations above 0.1 mg/ml. This discrepancy arose from the adoption of the uniform-layer model used by DPI for data analysis and the greater thickness sensitivity of NR. A model pregnancy immunoassay was built in steps on a silica surface so that the adsorption of each protein could be accurately monitored. Both DPI and NR provided evidence of BSA insertion into the gaps on the surface between the antibody molecules. This suggests that BSA adsorption is an excellent method to block the non-specific adsorption of target antigens to the immunoassay test surface. A magnetic tweezer system was designed and built in order to measure the specific antibody/antigen binding force. The antibodies and antigens were used to immuno-link magnetic beads to the experimental surface before the immuno-links were broken by increasing the attractive force between the magnetic tweezers and beads. The force per antibody/antigen immuno-link was estimated to lie between the values of 13.6 pN and 43.8 pN.Immuno-link detachment as a function of time was investigated. It was found that the immuno-link comprised both a strong and a weak interaction. The dissociation constant of the strong antibody/antigen interaction was found to equal 3E-4 /s and had an interaction length of 0.06 nm. The low population of beads bound by the second, weaker interaction meant that it was not possible to obtain accurate values of the dissociation constant and bond length of the second weaker interaction.

Adsorption of proteins at interfaces has an important role in biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. Indeed, several undesirable processes are related to protein adsorption, as for example: fouling of contact lenses, clotting on blood contacting devices, triggering inflammation around artificial organs, diminished circulation time of therapeutic proteins and drug bearing liposomes. Neutral water soluble polymers, such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), are used to repress protein adsorption: by coating the surface with a polymer brush, a "cushion" is created between the protein and the surface, that can reduce, or even completely repress the adsorption. Understanding the mechanism that inhibits the adsorption at interfaces is an active field of research, and could lead to relevant improvements in biomaterials performances and design.<p><p>A clear understanding of the mechanism of protein adsorption onto polymer brushes is still missing. The first models describing the interactions of a polymer brush with adsorbing particles predicted two adsorption modes: primary adsorption at the grafting surface, and secondary adsorption at the outer edge of the brush (occurring for large cylindrical proteins). Primary adsorption can be repressed by increasing the grafting density of the brush, and secondary adsorption by increasing its thickness, in agreement with the experiments reported in the literature. But experimental evidences (a maximum in the adsorbed amount observed for long brushes) suggested then the existence of a third mode: ternary adsorption within the brush itself, due to attractive interactions between the protein and the brush. Standard techniques can in general only probe the total adsorbed amount. The aim of this work was to separate primary and ternary adsorption isotherms, by using neutron reflectivity and deuterated proteins. As neutrons interact differently with hydrogen and deuterium atoms, the contrast between the hydrogenated brush and the deuterated protein is high enough to separate the two contributions.<p><p>We studied the adsorption of deuterated myoglobin on PEG brushes with different degrees of polymerisation (N = 56, 146 and 770), and as a function of the area per grafted chain. The contribution of primary and ternary adsorption was separated for the different systems, and the adsorbed amount was extracted and the adsorption isotherms compared to the theoretical predictions. The ability to distinguish between the different adsorption modes, and the quantification of their relative contribution to the overall amount of adsorbed proteins, represents a major advance in optimising surface properties. In particular, the occurrence of ternary adsorption onto PEG brushes affects their status as tool for repressing protein adsorption.<p><p><p>L’adsorption de protéines aux interfaces a un rôle important pour certaines applications pharmaceutiques ou biotechnologiques. En effet, plusieurs processus indésirables sont liés à l’adsorption de protéines, par exemple l’encrassement de lentilles de contact, la coagulation dans des appareils contenant du sang, l’inflammation d’organes artificiels ou encore la diminution du temps de circulation dans le corps de protéines ou liposomes thérapeutiques. Certains polymères, tels que le polyéthylène glycol (PEG), sont utilisés pour réprimer l’adsorption de protéines :en greffant une brosse de PEG sur la surface, une couche est créée entre la protéine et celle-ci qui diminue, voire même réprime complètement l’adsorption. Comprendre le mécanisme qui entrave l’adsorption aux interfaces est un sujet de recherche actif, qui pourrait mener à des améliorations significatives dans la conception de biomatériaux.<p><p>À ce jour, la compréhension du mécanisme d’adsorption de protéines sur des brosses de polymère n’est pas claire. Les premiers modèles décrivant les interactions entre brosses de polymères et particules adsorbantes prédisaient deux modes d’adsorption :l’adsorption primaire sur la surface de greffage, et l’adsorption secondaire à l’extérieur de la brosse (pour les grandes protéines cylindriques uniquement). L’adsorption primaire peut-être réprimée en augmentant la densité de greffage de la brosse, et l’adsorption secondaire en augmentant son épaisseur, en accord avec les expériences reportées dans la littérature. Mais d’autres évidences expérimentales (un maximum dans la quantité adsorbée observé pour les brosses longues) ont ensuite suggéré l’existence d’un troisième mode :l’adsorption ternaire à l’intérieur même de la brosse, due aux interactions attractives entre la protéine et la brosse.<p><p>Les techniques standards peuvent en général mesurer la quantité adsorbée totale. Le but de ce travail était de séparer les isothermes d’adsorption primaire et ternaire, en utilisant la réflectivité de neutrons et des protéines deutérées. Comme les neutrons interagissent différemment avec les atomes d’hydrogène ou de deutérium, le contraste entre la brosse hydrogénée et la protéine deutérée est ainsi suffisant pour séparer les deux contributions.<p><p>Nous avons étudié l’adsorption de myoglobine deutérée sur des brosses de PEG avec différents degrés de polymérisation (N = 56, 146 and 770), en fonction de l’aire par chaîne Σ. La contribution des adsorptions primaire et ternaire put être séparée pour les différents systèmes, et les quantités adsorbées extraites pour finalement comparer les isothermes d’adsorption aux prédictions théoriques. La possibilité de distinguer les différents modes d’adsorption, et la quantification de leur contribution relative à la quantité totale de protéines adsorbées représente une avancée majeure dans l’optimisation des propriétés des surfaces. L’adsorption ternaire dans les brosses de PEG en particulier remet en question leur utilisation pour réprimer l’adsorption de protéines. / Doctorat en Sciences / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished

The overall thrust of this dissertation is to gain a comprehensive understanding over the factors that govern the performance and behavior of ultra-thin, cross-linked polymer films. Poly(NIPAAm) was used as a model polymer to study volume phase transition in surface tethered networks. Poly(NIPAAm) undergoes a reversible phase transition at approximately 32°C between a swollen hydrophilic random coil to a collapsed hydrophobic globule state, thought to be caused by increased hydrophobic attractions between the isopropyl groups at elevated temperatures. We present a simple photochemical technique for fabricating structured polymer networks, enabling the construction of responsive surfaces with unique properties. The approach is based on the photo-cross-linking of copolymers synthesized from N-isopropylacrylamide and methacroyloxybenzophenone (MaBP). In order correlate layer swelling to the MaBP content, we have studied the swelling behavior of such layers in contact with aqueous solutions with neutron reflection. The cross-linked networks provide a three-dimensional scaffold to host a variety of functionalities. These networks serve as a platform which can be used to amplify small local perturbations induced by various stimuli like temperature, pH, solvent, ionic strength and peptide modified hydrogels to bring about a macroscopic change. Neutron reflection experiments have shown that the volume-phase transition of a surface-tethered, cross-linked poly(NIPAAm) network coincided with the two-phase region of uncross-linked poly(NIPAAm) in solution. Parallel measurements with ATR-FTIR investigating the effect of temperature, pH and salts suggest that the discontinuous transition is the result of cooperative dehydration of the isopropyl groups, with water remaining confined between amide groups in the collapsed state as weakly hydrogen bonded bridges. Hybrid polymers with specific peptide sequences have shown specific response to external cues such as pH and metal ions exhibiting unique phase behavior.

Unravelling details of charge, structure and molecular interactions of functional polymer coatings defines an important analytical challenge that requires the extension of current methodologies. In this article we demonstrate how streaming current measurements interpreted with combined self consistent field (SCF) and soft surface electrokinetic theories allow the evaluation of the segment distribution within poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) brushes beyond the resolution limits of neutron reflectivity technique.