Thesis (M.A.)--Deakin University, 1992. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 122-133).

>Magister Scientiae - MSc / The aim of this study is to investigate the perceived stigmatization of and discrimination against people who are HIV positive or people who are living with AIDS. One questionnaire was used to collect qualitative and quantitative data. Data collection was conducted for a period of three weeks in the Eastern Cape province at the Zwartwater area in Lady Frere and at the Queenstown (Frontier) Hospital. A sample of 170 (of the 900) females was interviewed, of which 100 were sequentially sampled from the community and 70 were sequentially sampled whilst they were queuing at the Queenstown (Frontier) Hospital for care. Households from the rural area were selected by visiting every fourth house on the route linking the houses in this area. At the hospital, selection started at the back of the queue and every sixth person was selected and interviewed. Scores were calculated for knowledge and attitudes towards people who are HIV positive and towards people who have AIDS. It was found that knowledge and attitude scores did not differ between the various age groups tested. It was furthermore found that an increased knowledge score improved attitudes towards people who are HIV-positive or have AIDS.

Doctor of Philosophy / Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology / Raymond R. R. Rowland / Severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) is a rare group of inherited disorders characterized by defects in both humoral and cellular immune functions. Naturally occurring SCID has been first described in humans in the 1960s and subsequently identified in horses, mice, and dogs, but never before in pigs. Affected animals are characterized by having loss of functional B and T lymphocytes, and in some cases natural killer (NK) cells, but normal numbers of monocytes, granulocytes, and megakaryocytes. As a result, affected animals fail to produce antibodies and succumb to common disease pathogens after circulating maternal antibodies decay. SCID models are extremely valuable for the understanding of molecular mechanisms of immunological processes during viral and bacterial diseases, cancer, and autoimmunity. SCID mice are widely used as the current model; however, the relevance of the murine SCID model to human and veterinary immune research is limited and there is an increasing need for a more representative model of SCID is imperative. We describe the gross, microscopic, and immunophenotypic characteristics of a line of Yorkshire pigs having naturally occurring SCID. Affected pigs lack T and B lymphocytes, but display circulating NK cells, fail to produce antibodies to viral infection, and lack cell-mediated response to tumor xenotransplants. We also describe response of SCID pigs to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV). PRRSV is the most devastating virus in swine industry, causing losses of billions of dollars annually. Understanding the immunopathogenesis of the disease is imperative in order to develop strategies to combat this devastating virus. PRRSV infected-SCID pigs failed to develop lesions of PRRSV infection, demonstrating the significant role of the adaptive immunity to PRRSV infection. Finally, we describe the preliminary results of the adoptive transfer of purified CD3⁺ T lymphocytes to SCID pigs from SLA-II matched wild-type littermates, with the objective of establishing a porcine model for the study of T cell immunopathogenesis with viral diseases.

Um dos problemas mais crÃticos relacionados à coinfecÃÃo HIV/Tuberculose (TB) à a mortalidade associada. A infecÃÃo por HIV tem contribuÃdo para o aumento do nÃmero de casos de TB e ainda tem sido responsÃvel pelo aumento da mortalidade entre os pacientes coinfectados. Fortaleza, situada no Nordeste do Brasil, à um dos centros urbanos com maior incidÃncia de TB no paÃs. O presente trabalho avaliou caracterÃsticas clÃnicas, epidemiolÃgicas e fatores de risco relacionados a mortalidade por TB em pacientes coinfectados com HIV/Aids, maiores de 12 anos, residentes na cidade de Fortaleza-CE. Realizou-se estudo retrospectivo, descritivo e de caso-controle. Foram revisados dados em 262 prontuÃrios dos pacientes com TB ativa acompanhados em quatro ambulatÃrios de referÃncia para HIV/Aids em Fortaleza entre os anos de 2004-2008. O perfil desses pacientes à caracterizado por adultos jovens, baixa escolaridade, sendo comuns os hÃbitos de etilismo (41,98%), tabagismo (33,59%) e uso de drogas ilÃcitas (26,72%). A maioria (65,65%) apresentou TB pela primeira vez. Quanto à apresentaÃÃo clÃnica, a TB pulmonar foi observada em 50% dos casos. A maioria (62,98%) foi submetida a internamento hospitalar durante o tratamento da TB. O uso de antirretrovirias foi mais frequente nos casos que evoluÃram para cura ou tÃrmino de tratamento (88,0%). A letalidade foi de 11,45% e o coeficiente de abandono de 16,03%. Na anÃlise univariada, o indivÃduo separado/viÃvo tem 3,7 vezes mais chance de Ãbito por TB, e 100% dos casos novos foram a Ãbito. Exame de raio-X alterado apresentou uma proporÃÃo de 31% de Ãbitos. O diagnÃstico de HIV devido à TB foi fator protetor ao Ãbito (OR=0,25). A mÃdia da carga viral antes da TB foi superior no grupo dos casos (p=0,04). O inicio da TARV foi outro fator protetor para o Ãbito (OR=0,11). No modelo final da regressÃo logÃstica mÃltipla, observou-se que o indivÃduo que nÃo teve resposta ao tratamento tem 9,9 (p=<0,01) vezes mais chance de evoluir para Ãbito e o indivÃduo que nÃo iniciou o antiretrovirais tem 10,1 (p=<0,01) vezes mais. Estes resultados sÃo importantes para o planejamento e desenvolvimento de aÃÃes voltadas para o controle da TB nos pacientes com infecÃÃo por HIV/Aids em Fortaleza. / One of the most critical problems related to HIV / tuberculosis (TB) coinfection is the associate mortality. HIV infection has contributed to the increase in the number of TB cases and has even been responsible for the increased mortality among coinfected patients. Fortaleza, located in Northeastern Brazil, is one of the urban centers with the highest incidence of TB in the country. This research evaluates clinical, epidemiological characteristics and risk factors related to mortality from TB in patients coinfected with HIV / AIDS, aged 12, residents in the city of Fortaleza. It was performed a retrospective, descriptive and case-control study. Database were reviewed in 262 charts of patients with TB active treated at four clinics reference to HIV / AIDS in Fortaleza between the years 2004-2008. The profile of these patients is characterized by young adults, low education, and common habits of alcoholism (41.98%), smoking (33.59%) and illicit drug use (26.72%). The majority (65.65%) showed the first time TB. In the clinical presentation, pulmonary TB was observed in 50% of cases. The majority (62.98%) underwent hospitalization during treatment of TB. The use of anti retrovirias was more frequent in patients who progressed to cure or end of treatment (88.0%). The mortality rate was 11.45% and the coefficient of abandonment of 16.03%. In univariate analysis, the individual separated / widowed have 3.7 times greater risk of death from TB, and 100% of new cases died. X-ray examination showed a changed ratio of 31% of deaths. The diagnosis of HIV due to TB was a protective factor against death (OR = 0.25). Mean viral load before TB was higher in the case group (p = 0.04). The start of ART was another protective factor for death (OR = 0.11). In the final model of logistic regression, we found that the individual who had no response to treatment is 9.9 (p = <0.01) times more likely to lead to death and the individual who has not started antiretroviral 10.1 (p = <0.01) more times. These results are important for planning and development of actions for the control of TB in patients with HIV infection / AIDS in Fortaleza.

nÃo hà / A infecÃÃo pelo HIV/aids em crianÃas vem sendo eliminada como problema de saÃde pÃblica em paÃses desenvolvidos, mas mantÃm elevada carga de morbimortalidade naqueles em desenvolvimento. O Brasil se destaca pela polÃtica consistente de controle, especialmente pela adoÃÃo universal/gratuita da HAART em 1996. Esta tese visa caracterizar padrÃes e tendÃncias de morbimortalidade e sobrevida em crianÃas com aids no paÃs. Foram estruturados dois blocos analÃticos: 1) estudos nacionais de morbimortalidade por aids em crianÃas, 2) estudos nacionais de sobrevida em crianÃas com aids. No primeiro bloco realizou-se estudo ecolÃgico do tipo sÃrie temporal (1984-2008) de casos (14.314) e Ãbitos (5.041) por aids no Brasil, regiÃes e grupos etÃrios (0-12 e 0-4 anos), baseado na anÃlise dos respectivos coeficientes por modelos de regressÃo polinomial, diferenÃa percentual e razÃes nas eras prÃ-HAART e HAART. Adicionalmente, realizou-se anÃlise de tendÃncia temporal (1999-2007) da mortalidade por causas mÃltiplas relacionadas à infecÃÃo pelo HIV/aids em crianÃas infectadas no Brasil (2.191/680.736) pela estimativa da razÃo de chances de mortalidade (MOR). No segundo bloco, realizou-se estudo de coorte retrospectiva, multicÃntrico-nacional, de sobrevida em crianÃas com aids (920 crianÃas, 1999-2002, atà 2007) e fatores associados, com anÃlise integrada ao primeiro estudo nacional (914 crianÃas, 1983-1998, atà 2002) para verificaÃÃo de tendÃncias de sobrevida e padrÃes de ocorrÃncia de diagnÃstico tardio e doenÃas definidoras de aids. Os resultados demonstram que o Brasil apresenta reduÃÃo da tendÃncia temporal da morbimortalidade da aids apÃs a adoÃÃo da HAART, mas com grandes desigualdades regionais. As regiÃes mais pobres do paÃs (Norte/Nordeste) apresentaram o pior cenÃrio para mortalidade (p<0,001), apesar da concentraÃÃo de casos e Ãbitos nas regiÃes mais desenvolvidas (Sul/Sudeste). Para a incidÃncia, o Nordeste evoluiu com estabilizaÃÃo (p<0,001); o Sul apresenta tendÃncia crescente para crianÃas 0-4 anos (p<0,001) e os maiores coeficientes do paÃs em ambos grupos etÃrios. O coeficiente de mortalidade por causas nÃo relacionadas ao HIV/aids entre 1999-2007 era estÃvel (0,08/100.000 habitantes). A MOR indica tendÃncia de crescimento destas causas entre 2000-2007 (1,18 versus 1,85), embora nÃo significativa (p=0,413); nÃo foi verificada tendÃncia de causas especÃficas neste grupo. A probabilidade de sobrevida em 60 meses foi de 0,88 (IC 95%: 0,86-0,91), com menor sobrevida para crianÃas com <1 ano (p=0,013), categoria C (p<0,001), doenÃas oportunistas (p<0,001) e sem TARV (p<0,001). Nos estudos nacionais, houve, respectivamente, 420 (46%) e 109 (11,8%) Ãbitos, com tendÃncia de ampliaÃÃo da sobrevida (p<0,001), variando de 0,20 (<1988) a 0,90 (2001-2002), e tambÃm pÃs-HAART (0,41 versus 0,84, p<0,001). Houve reduÃÃo do diagnÃstico tardio e de doenÃas definidoras em crianÃas nascidas (p=0,009 e p<0,001) e diagnosticadas pÃs-HAART (p=0,004 e p<0,001), com proporÃÃes ainda elevadas na segunda coorte (47,7% versus 36,1% e 80,7% versus 50,8%); doenÃas bacterianas e pneumocistose mantiveram importÃncia, com menor grau. Conclui-se que a morbimortalidade da aids em crianÃas no paÃs vem sendo reduzida, sobretudo pÃs-HAART. A sobrevida ampliou-se significativamente, tornando a aids uma condiÃÃo crÃnica, com desafios inerentes. Mas desigualdades regionais indicam implementaÃÃo diferenciada das aÃÃes, com pior cenÃrio nas regiÃes mais pobres, com aspectos ainda da era prÃ-HAART. Adicionalmente, o estudo revela questÃes importantes relacionadas à cobertura/qualidade da atenÃÃo à saÃde da mulher (em especial prÃ-natal e planejamento familiar) e Ãs crianÃas expostas/infectadas pelo HIV bem como à complexidade da dinÃmica de transmissÃo do HIV-1 no paÃs. / HIV/AIDS infection among children is in the process of being eliminated as a public health problem in high-income countries, but still maintains an elevated level of morbidity-mortality in developing nations. Brazil stands out for its consistent HIV/AIDS control policy, particularly its adoption of free and universal distribution of HAART in 1996. This thesis describes the patterns and trends of morbidity-mortality and survival in children with AIDS in Brazil. Two analytical groupings were formed: 1) national studies of AIDS morbidity-mortality in children, 2) national survival studies in children with AIDS. In the first group, an ecological time-series study was undertaken (1984-2008) on cases (14,314) and deaths (5,041) from AIDS in Brazil by region and age group (0-12 and 0-4 years), based on an analysis of the respective rates using polynomial regression, percentage differences and ratios in the pre-HAART and HAART eras. In addition, a temporal trend analysis was done (1999-2007) on mortality from the various causes related to HIV/AIDS infection in children in Brazil (2,191/680,736) using Mortality Odds Ratio (MOR). Among the second group, a multi-centric, national retrospective cohort study of survival of children with AIDS (920 children, 1999-2002, until 2007) and associated factors was conducted with integrated analysis of the first national study (914 children, 1983-1998, until 2002) for verification of survival trends and occurrence patterns of late diagnosis and AIDS-defining diseases. The results point to the fact that Brazil shows a reduction of AIDS morbidity and mortality after the implementation of HAART, but with large regional disparities. The poorest regions of the country (North/Northeast) showed the worst trend for mortality (p<0.001), despite the concentration of cases and deaths in the most developed regions (South/Southeast). In terms of incidence, evolution in the Northeast stabilized (p<0.001), whereas the South showed increasing trends for children aged 0-4 (p<0.001), with the highest national rates for both age groups. The mortality rate from causes not related to HIV/AIDS between 1999 and 2007 was stable (0.08/100,000 population). The MOR indicates an increasing trend of these causes from 2000-2007 (1.18 versus 1.85), although not statistically significant (p=0.413). A trend of specific causes was not identified in this group. The probability of survival at 60 months was 0.88 (CI 95%: 0.86-0.91), with the lowest survival rates among children <1 year of age (p=0.013), category C (p<0.001), opportunistic diseases (p<0.001) and without ART (p<0.001). In the national studies there were, respectively, 420 (46%) and 109 (11.8%) deaths, with a trend for increased survival (p<0.001), varying from 0.20 (<1988) to 0.90 (2001-2002) post-HAART (0.41 versus 0.84, p<0.001). There was a reduction in late diagnosis and AIDS-defining diseases in children born (p=0.009 and p<0.001) and diagnosed post-HAART (p=0.004 and p<0.001), though with elevated frequencies still seen in the second cohort (47.7% versus 36.1% and 80.7% versus 50.8%). Bacterial diseases and pneumocystosis remained important, but to a lesser degree. It is concluded that morbidity-mortality due to AIDS among Brazilian children has been declining, principally after the adoption of HAART. Survival increased significantly to the point of making AIDS a chronic condition with inherent challenges. However, there were regional inequalities with differences in the implementation of control activities, and worse conditions in the poorest regions, still showing characteristics of the pre-HAART era. In addition, the study reveals important issues related to coverage/quality of health care for women (particularly pre-natal care and family planning) and for children exposed to or infected with HIV, as well as to the dynamics of HIV-1 transmission in Brazil.

No description available.

No description available.

HIV and AIDS pandemic have been declining in South Africa. HIV and AIDS affect individuals, families, organizations and the communities at large. While the roll out of the antiretroviral treatment (ART) has brought much excitement and hope to both patients and the health practitioners, it has also brought challenges (Maskew, Macphail, Menez & Rubel, 2007:853). In order for ART to be effective patients need to adhere to antiretroviral treatment, thus adherence is a critical component of ART. Patients who discontinue treatment are at high risk of illness and death because of AIDS related diseases or developing drug resistant virus. With a better understanding of the reasons for defaulting antiretroviral treatment interventions can be designed to improve adherence to antiretroviral treatment. Thus the purpose of this study was to explore the reasons why HIV and AIDS infected patients default antiretroviral treatment because adherence to ART is of utmost important. Within the context of qualitative and applied research the researcher utilized the collective case study design. Semi structured interviewing was used as data collection method to elicit qualitative information on the reasons why patients default ART. The main research question that was put forward to all participants was: What are your reasons for defaulting ART? The participants in this study were patients who have default their ART during 2012. By using systematic sampling fourteen participants from Thekganang ARV Clinic in Seshego District Hospital, Limpopo province, were selected to form a sample for this study. Some conclusions based on the findings were that: The participants were knowledgeable about the basic facts of HIV and AIDS and they had a good understanding about the importance of adherence even though they defaulted their antiretroviral treatment. The use of ART may also be challenging to individuals. The findings of this study were that not all participants in the study experienced challenges with taking ART. Those who experienced challenges included fear of disclosing HIV status, fear of stigmatization and physical challenges due to ill health. Regarding the reasons for defaulting ART, participants’ reasons for defaulting antiretroviral treatment were similar although some of the reasons applied to only one participant. Participants’ reasons for treatment default were classified into socio-economic factors, patient related, psychological related and medication related factors. Socio- economic factors included shortage of food in the household and lack of money for transport to attend clinic appointments. Patient related factors included substance abuse, lost appointment cards, participants were too busy with personal issues and relocation to another area of residence. Psychological factors that contributed to non-adherence to treatment were depression and denial. Medical related factor voiced was that participant was too confused about the drug regimen. Most participants were satisfied with the services in Thekganang ARV clinic although some participants raised concerns about staff attitudes and long queue. The findings will assist the hospital management and the clinic staff to make informed decisions about the management of defaulters in the clinic. The study was concluded with the relevant recommendations to the ART facilities. The recommendations included implementation of the multi-disciplinary centred approach, establishing patient education programmes and on-going support services to patients who fail to adhere to treatment. Future research studies should determine the prevalence of drug resistant HIV patients in the ART facilities and the development of a systematic method of capturing ‘‘lost to follow up’’ patients who pass away within hospitals. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 2014. / lk2014 / Social Work and Criminology / MA / Unrestricted

Magister Artium (Child and Family Studies) - MA(CFS) / HIV/AIDS is one of the major challenging illnesses globally and is increasingly recognised as an illness that affects families and not just the individual. While HIV/AIDS has brought many challenges to infected individuals and their families, the focus has primarily been on individuals with HIV/AIDS in relation to their needs. Families often provide most of the emotional and physical care to a family member with HIV/AIDS, placing a huge strain on them that could lead to tension between family members. There is a paucity of research exploring the phenomenon of being a member of a family affected by HIV/AIDS. Therefore, the aim of this study was to explore the lived experiences of family members adjusting to HIV/AIDS disclosure within their families.

Thesis (MPH.) -- University of Limpopo, 2020 / Background: In South Africa, the Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act (CTOP) (No. 92 of 1996) promotes a woman's reproductive right and choice to have an early, safe and legal abortion. Pregnancy termination among young women constitutes a public health problem particularly in South Africa where high prevalence of abortion has been recently recorded. HIV acquisition is increased two to four-fold during pregnancy, due to biological and behavioural factors including immunological changes, hormonal changes affecting the genital tract mucosa, higher frequency of unprotected sex and incident sexually transmitted infections (STIs) during pregnancy. There is a growing interest in exploring maternal mental health effects of unintended pregnancies. However, the evidence base from a small number of available studies is characterized by considerable variability, inconsistency and inconclusive findings. Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to investigate the prevalence of HIV and its association with termination of pregnancy at Seshego Zone 4 clinic in Limpopo Province. Methodology: A cross-section descriptive retrospective review study in which convenience sampling of the records of women who terminated pregnancies was used in this study. The key variable of interest in this study was HIV results and all patients records without evidence of HIV testing, and the associated results were excluded. A self-designed data extraction tool was used to extract the data from patients records and tool covered variables such as the age of the women, educational status, marital status, occupational status, year and month of termination of pregnancy, gestational age, parity, and gravidity, method of contraceptive used, HIV status, ARV and ARV regimens. Data analysis was done using the STATA statistical software version 12 for Windows (STATA Corporation, College Station, Texas). vi Results: The mean age was 24.98 years SD±14.4 and majority of women who terminated pregnancies were in the age group 20 – 24 years at 35.7% and the least number of women who terminated pregnancies were in the age groups ≥ 40 years and ≤ 14 years at 2.3% and 0.3% respectively. Majority of the women who terminated pregnancies had parity of 1 – 2 at 47.4% followed by parity of zero at 42.3% and 3 – 4 at 9.9%. Majority of the women who terminated pregnancies were in gravida 1 at 42.8% followed by those with gravida 2 at 27.1% and those who were pregnant between the 3rd and 4th time were 26.9%. There was a statistical significance difference (p<0.001) of the use of contraceptives by age groups and also in relation to parity and similarly to gravidity. The prevalence of HIV amongst women who terminated pregnancies in the current study was found to be 11.6% and this was high in 2018 at 10.5% followed by 2019, 2015 and 2016 at 10.3%, 9.2% and 9.1% respectively. The prevalence of HIV amongst women who terminated pregnancies increased with increasing level of education from 4.1% amongst women who had primary or no educational level the followed by 9,0% and 13.6% in women who had secondary and tertiary educational level respectively. The risk of women who terminate pregnancies being HIV positive in the current study increased significantly with increasing age as older women were 1.9 times more likely to be HIV positive as compared to younger ones (p=0.004) Conclusion: The findings of this study highlight the need to address the structural socio-economic drivers of the HIV epidemic among women of child-bearing age. Women of child-bearing age in this setting have large unmet reproductive health needs. Structural interventions, such as increasing contraceptive use which may be useful for reducing the burden of unplanned pregnancies. Key concepts Human immunodeficiency virus, Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, Termination of pregnancy, Parity and Gravidity.