>Magister Scientiae - MSc / Nanotechnology is a rapidly growing field of research. Due to major innovations brought about by developments in nanotech, several consumer products are currently available containing nanomaterials. The increase of nanomaterial production and use is accompanied by the increased potential of human, plant and animal exposure to these nanomaterials. As a relatively new nanomaterial, carbon quantum dots (CQDs) are being extensively used and researched due to its unique properties. Although many studies have assessed the toxic potential of CQDs, and found them to exhibit low toxicity, there is lack of work assessing the effects on the immune system. In the present study, RAW 264.7 murine macrophages were used as model to assess the immunomodulatory potential of CQDs. RAW cells exposed to varying concentrations of CQDs (0-500μg/ml), showed that CQDs caused a reduction at cell viability. In the absence of a mitogen CQDs, induced an inflammatory response by stimulating the release of various cytokines and chemokines such as, TNFα, MIP-1α, MIP-1β, MIP-2, IP-10, G-CSF, GM-CSF, and JE.

<p>Per-and  polyfluoroalkyl  substances  (PFAS)  are  a  large  group  of  emerging  contaminants  that include astrong carbon-flourine bond that makes the compounds resistant to physical, chemical and  biological  degradation.  They  are  found  in  drinking  water  supplies,  daily  human  products, manufacturing  facilities,  and  in  areas  where  aqueous  film-forming  foam  (AFFF)was  used  to extinguish fires. Toxicity levels of these chemicals can vary depending on the characteristics of the specific chemical; longer carbon chain has shown to be more bioaccumulative and toxic than shorter chain length PFAS. Many studies have recognized perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) to be a substantial concern due to their known toxicity to wildlife. For example, studies show strong evidence that PFOA and PFOS suppress the antibody response from animals. Due to adverse health effects and public concern, the U.S stopped perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) manufacturing and switched to the production of an alternative fluorinated compound known  as  hexafluoropropylene  oxide  (HFPO)  dimer  acid  or  GenX,  which  is  thought  to  beless bioaccumulative and therefore, potentially less toxic. These anthropogenic pollutants are one of many stressors acting on aquatic organisms like anurans. Natural stressors such as the devastating fungal  pathogen Batrachocytrium  dendrobatidis(Bd)  is  another  stressor  impacting  amphibian populations.  Despite the co-occurrence of these stressors, no studies have examined interactive effects of the fungal pathogen Bd and PFAS, or whether PFAS effects carry over into the terrestrial environment aftera larvae  exposure. This study  tested the growth and developmental effects of PFOS, PFOA, and GenX, on gray treefrog (Hyla versicolor) tadpoles, followed by a Bd challenge in metamorphs. Our results demonstrate that a PFAS larval exposure interacted witha terrestrial Bdchallenge to influence growth and development. Bdexposed animals were significantly shorter (smaller snout vent length)  and had a significant increase in body condition and mass. This is the first study to report effects on amphibian terrestrial life stages after larval exposure to PFAS and to report an increased sensitivity to Bd. The environmentally relevant concentrations tested in this study  (<10  parts  per  billion)  lend  ecological  significance  to  these  results  however,  additional studies are needed to understand the mechanisms behind these effects.</p>

Diethylstilbestrol (DES) and 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) have been identified as immunotoxicants causing thymic atrophy, thymocyte hypocellularity, phenotypic changes detected by CD4 and CD8 surface antigens, and progenitor T-cell targeting in the fetal mouse. We hypothesized that gestational exposure to these two compounds may lead to comparable histologic and gene expression alterations in the fetal mouse thymus and liver. Treatment of pregnant C57Bl/6 mice with doses of 5 or 10 ug/kg TCDD or 48 ug/kg DES by oral gavage on gestation days (gd) 14 and 16 severely depressed day 18 thymic cellularity. Histologic evaluation of day 18 fetal thymuses showed disruption of normal cortico-medullary architecture after TCDD or DES. Decreased thymocyte density was noted primarily in cortical zones where pyknotic cells were increased by either TCDD or DES treatment. Using day 18 thymocyte suspensions and flow cytometry, 7-AAD showed decreases in viable thymocytes from TCDD- or DES-treated fetal mice, and concomitant increases in thymocytes in early apoptosis. When thymocytes were co-identified with CD4 and CD8 cell surface antigen expression, enhanced apoptosis occurred in CD4+CD8+ phenotype after TCDD treatment. After DES exposure, increased apoptosis occurred in CD4-CD8- and CD4-CD8+thymocytes. Both TCDD and DES increased liver to body weight ratios and decreased ratios of hematopoietic to hepatic cells present. Cytomegaly was seen in hepatocytes of TCDD and DES treated animals, and these cells had more variable features, such as increased cytoplasmic basophilia and more prominent nucleoli. Real time quantitative PCR demonstrated that DES decreased c-jun, Bcl-2, and PKCalpha mRNA expression. These results suggest a shift away from proliferative activity and may reflect alterations noted predominantly in the hematopoietic population. TCDD increased c-jun mRNA expression with modest decreases in PKCalpha, and marked decreases in p53 also noted. Decreases in p53 suggest a pro-proliferative status of hepatic cells, while decreases in PKCalpha may indicate decreases in phosphorylation of substrates required for normal cell cycle progression. The increased c-jun suggests that this gene may play a role in the hepatocyte hyperplasia, as well as the diminution of hematopoiesis. / Ph. D.

Indiscriminate use of pesticides appears to alter immune response in non-target organisms such as humans and other animals. Thus, immune modulation is considered as one of the potential risks and consequences following exposure to these chemicals. Because of the widespread usage, exposure to mixtures of pesticides during the lifetime of individuals is unavoidable and can result in potentiation of the toxic effects. Because immune cells are more susceptible to toxic insults at a lower dose than most other cell types, the effects of pesticides and their mixtures on murine splenocytes were evaluated. C57BL/6 male mouse splenocytes, in vitro, were exposed to permethrin and endosulfan, individually and in-combination (25-200 µM). The immunotoxic potential of these pesticides was monitored using a flow cytometric technique in combination with 7-Amino Actinomycin D (7-AAD) staining. Endosulfan exposures (25-150 µM) resulted in time- and dose-dependent increase in apoptotic and necrotic cell death in murine splenocytes, in vitro. Permethrin exposure (50-200 µM) resulted in neither a time-dependent/dose-dependent loss of splenocyte viability nor induction of apoptosis in splenocytes. With mixtures of permethrin and endosulfan, depressed viability and enhanced early apoptosis and late apoptosis/necrosis were observed. Exposure to mixtures of 50 µM endosulfan with 50 or 100 µM permethrin increased late apoptosis/necrosis compared to exposure to either chemical alone. DNA fragmentation, a hall mark of apoptosis was observed by DNA ladder technique, confirming the occurrence of apoptosis. Morphological observation using cytospun slides was also carried out to further confirm the presence of apoptosis and necrosis. These findings suggest that the immunotoxicity of endosulfan both individually and in mixtures with permethrin is associated with the occurrence of apoptotic and necrotic processes. Further, the ability of these pesticides to alter the oxidative status of the cells, via reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and modulation of intracellular antioxidant enzymes levels, was investigated. We monitored the generation of ROS such as hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) with 2´, 7´- dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFH-DA) assay and superoxide anion (O₂⁻) with hydroethidine (HE) assay in combination with flow cytometry. Spectrophotometric techniques were used to measure antioxidant enzymes such as catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX). Results of the analyses revealed that individual pesticides increased the production of H₂O₂ in a time and dose-dependent manner. Both time and dose-dependent increases in O₂⁻ production were caused by permethrin; whereas endosulfan exposure resulted in only a dose-dependent increase. However, exposure to mixtures of these pesticides had little or no effect on the generation of H₂O₂ and O₂⁻ radicals as compared to individual pesticides. The levels of SOD and GPX in pesticide-treated splenocytes were found to be not different from solvent control. An increase in GR and CAT levels in cells was noticed with permethrin (100 µM) exposure. These findings suggest that permethrin and endosulfan have the ability to affect the cellular oxidative status and can cause toxicity in immune cells, in vitro. / Master of Science

A bacterial challenge assay was developed utilizing the earthworm, Lumbricus terrestris, in order to assess potential immunotoxic effects from exposure to specific polychlorinated biphenyl congeners. Earthworms were inoculated with Aeromonous hydrophila, establishing a 10-day LD50. In vitro assays for effects of PCBs on phagocytosis agreed with mammalian studies, demonstrating potent suppression of phagocytosis by the non-coplanar PCB congener 138 and no suppression by the coplanar congener 126. However, when the effects of the two PCB congeners were evaluated for suppression of resistance to a whole animal infection challenge assay, coplanar PCB 126 decreased the ability of L. terrestris to withstand infection while non-coplanar PCB 138 did not.

Numerous findings have suggested that the increased prevalence of childhood illnesses such as cancer, infection, and allergy may be due to environmental exposures. One such cause may be maternal smoking or passive smoke exposure. Known immunotoxicants in cigarette smoke and environmental pollution include polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons such as 1,2:5,6 Dibenzanthracene (DBA). The objective of these studies was to evaluate the immunosuppressive effects of DBA on various stages of immune system development. Adult mice were administered DBA daily in corn oil at dose levels of 158, 500, 1580, and 5000 µglkg S.C. for 28 days. Immunosuppression was not observed at levels less than 5000 µgkg in the following immune parameters: NK cell activity, anti-CD3 antibody-mediated proliferation and mixed-leukocyte response. In contrast, holistic assays such as the PFC response to the T-dependent antigen, sRBC and the delayed type hypersensitivity response were significantly suppressed at dose levels of 500 µglkg and greater. Mice exposed to DBA in utero and through lactation showed neither immunosuppressive nor sex differences among the immune parameters tested when evaluated at weaning, postnatal day (PND) 21, or when evaluated at sexual maturity (PND 42). Transference of DBA metabolites from mother to pup is suggested by HPLC analysis of milk extracted from PND 8 pups. In contrast, juvenile mice administered DBA beginning on PND 21 at dose levels from 0.25 to 2500 µgkg for 28 days demonstrated a dose-dependent suppression (43-79%) of the PFC assay, statistically significant at or above the 2.5 µglkg dose level. Neither immunosuppressive nor sex differences were observed among the various other immune parameters evaluated. Collectively, these studies indicate that the juvenile life stage in B6C3F1 mice is the most vulnerable to DBA-induced immunotoxicity with a 200-fold enhancement in immunosuppression of the PFC response as compared to adult mice. These studies provide insight into how environmental contaminants, such as DBA, may impact children's health.

A Uncaria tomentosa (U. tomentosa), popularmente conhecida como \"Unha-de-gato\", é uma planta medicinal nativa das Américas, mundialmente empregada devido às suas atividades anti-inflamatórias e imunomodulatórias. O consumo desta planta ocorre não apenas na forma in natura, mas principalmente como fitoterápico, sendo muitas vezes utilizada de forma indiscriminada pela população. Apesar de vários estudos revelarem as propriedades terapêuticas da U. tomentosa, poucos são os trabalhos que empregam protocolos estabelecidos por agências regulamentadoras internacionais, para a avaliação dos possíveis efeitos tóxicos e imunotóxicos deste fitoterápico. Assim, o propósito do presente estudo foi verificar se a administração de um extrato seco de U. tomentosa, comercialmente disponível no mercado, poderia ocasionar efeitos tóxicos e imunotóxicos em ratos após 90 dias de tratamento. Para isso, 40 ratos Wistars machos foram tratados oralmente com as doses de 15, 75 ou 150 mg/kg de extrato seco de U. tomentosa comercialmente disponível no mercado, contendo teores de alcaloides de acordo com aqueles valores preconizados em literatura. No final do período experimental, os animais foram submetidos à eutanásia para realização de avaliações bioquímicas, hematológicas, histopatológicas, análise de órgãos linfoides e não-linfoides, avaliação das respostas imunes inata, inflamatória e humoral, bem como teste para determinação de reação de hipersensibilidade do tipo IV. Os resultados revelaram aumento nos níveis de ALT dos animais tratados com a dose de 75 mg/kg, e redução nos índices glicêmicos de ratos tratados com 75 e 150 mg/kg de U. tomentosa. Entretanto, somente os ratos tratados com a maior dose exibiram discreta vacuolização centro-lobular hepática; assim, somente os dados de ALT não são sugestivos de efeitos hepáticos adversos da U. tomentosa após um longo período de tratamento. A redução nos índices sanguíneos de glicose dos ratos, após tratamento com a U. tomentosa, podem representar importante risco para seres humanos diabéticos, susceptíveis ao desenvolvimento de hipoglicemia e que fazem uso da U. tomentosa para outros propósitos. Em conclusão, estes estudos demonstraram que, apesar de a U. tomentosa não promover efeitos tóxicos e imunotóxicos, o uso prolongado da mesma, a altas doses, pode promover redução dos índices glicêmicos. / Uncaria tomentosa (U. tomentosa), commonly known as \"Cat\'s claw\", is a native medicinal plant from America, it is employed worldwide for its anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory activities. The consumption of this plant occurs not only in natura, but mainly as a phytotherapic, used indiscriminately by the population. Although many researchers revealed the therapeutic properties of U. tomentosa, few studies employing established protocols by international regulatory agencies for the evaluation of the possible toxic and immunotoxic effects of this herbal medicine. Thus, the purpose of the present study was to verify if the dry extract of U. tomentosa could promote toxic and/or immunotoxic effects in rats following 90 days of treatment. For this, forty male rats were orally treated with 15, 75 or 150mg/kg of dry extract of U. tomentosa, commercially available, containing levels of alkaloids according to those values recommended in the literature. At the end of experimental period, the rats were killed for the evaluation of the biochemistry, haematology, histopathology, status of the lymphoid and non-lymphoid organs, evaluation of innate, inflammatory and humoral immune responses, as well as a test to determine the delayed type hypersensitivity. The results revealed an increase in the levels of ALT in the animals treated with 75mg/kg and a reduction in the glycaemic levels of rats treated with 75 and 150mg/kg of U. tomentosa. However, only rats treated with the higher dose showed a slight centrilobular hepatic vacuolation; thus, ALT data alone are not suggestive of a hepatic adverse effect of U. tomentosa following long-term treatment. The reduction in blood glucose levels of the rats, could represent an important risk for diabetic humans, who are susceptible to the development of hypoglycaemia and who might use U. tomentosa for purposes other than anti-diabetes. In conclusion, these studies demonstrated that, while U. tomentosa has no immunotoxic effect, long-term U. tomentosa treatment at high doses can promote reduction in glycemic levels.

O crack, uma droga de abuso constituída principalmente por cocaína, continua sendo um grande problema social e de saúde pública. Apesar de vários estudos em modelos animais com outras formas de cocaína, raros são os relatos sobre os efeitos da exposição pulmonar ao crack em roedores, devido à dificuldade de realizar a exposição dos mesmos à droga, o que seria de grande valia, uma vez que eliminaria variáveis encontradas em usuários, como o uso de outras drogas. Assim, o propósito do presente estudo foi avaliar os efeitos tóxicos, imunotóxicos e ainda, alterações comportamentais de ratos Wistar machos expostos ao crack pela via pulmonar. Inicialmente, foram realizadas determinações de cocaína nas pedras de crack utilizadas e também, a quantidade de crack e tempo de exposição dos animais para obtenção de níveis séricos de cocaína semelhantes àqueles encontrados na literatura, e os dados obtidos foram de: 67% de cocaína no crack e a queima de 250 mg de crack, com exposição dos animais por 10 minutos acarretou em níveis plasmáticos próximos de 170 ng/mL de cocaína. Assim, em cada experimento foram utilizados 30 ratos divididos em 3 grupos iguais, um controle, um experimental e um grupo pair-fed, já que a cocaína promove efeitos anorexígenos que poderiam interferir nas avaliações comportamentais e imunológicas aqui estudadas, e que foram expostos ou não à fumaça resultante de 250 mg de crack, por 10 minutos, duas vezes ao dia, durante 28 dias. Ao final do período experimental, os animais foram submetidos à eutanásia para realização de avaliações bíoquimicas, hematológicas, histopatológicas, análise de órgãos-linfóides, avaliação das respostas imune inata (inflamatória), humoral e a avaliação da reação de hipersensibilidade do tipo IV. Ainda, ao longo do período experimental, estes mesmos animais foram avaliados quanto a possíveis alterações comportamentais e para tal foram utilizados 3 métodos distintos: avaliação cognitiva em labirinto em T, avaliação geral do comportamento em campo aberto e ainda, a avaliação de preferência ou aversão ao odor da droga. A exposição ao crack não resultou em alterações que caracterizem toxicidade em parâmetros clínicos, bioquímicos, hematológicos e histopatológicos; não foram observadas alterações com significado clínico nas avaliações do peso relativo, celularidade, morfometria de órgãos linfoides e fenotipagem de linfócitos esplênicos de ratos expostos à droga. Não houve efeitos imunomodulatórios nas avaliações do burst oxidativo e fagocitose de macrófagos peritoneais e de neutrófilos circulantes, assim como nas avaliações da produção de anticorpos T-dependentes e na reação de hipersensibilidade do tipo IV. Quanto às avaliações comportamentais, os animais expostos à droga apresentaram aumento da atividade locomotora, e uma maior preferência ao odor característico do crack, aparentemente sem prejuízo cognitivo. Em conclusão, a exposição de ratos 2 vezes ao dia, por 28 dias ao crack não promoveu alterações imunotóxicas; por outro lado, comportamentos clássicos da exposição à cocaína foram observados nos animais expostos, evidenciando que o modelo aqui utilizado será de grande utilidade para outros estudos que envolvam drogas de abuso, como possíveis estratégias terapêuticas e o melhor entendimento da toxicocinética de drogas utilizadas pela via pulmonar / Crack cocaine, a drug of abuse that consists mainly of cocaine, remains as a major social and public health problem. Although several studies in animal models with other forms of cocaine, there are few scientific reports on the effects of pulmonary exposure to crack in rodents, this is due to the difficulty of performing their exposure, which would be of great value, since would eliminate variables observed in users, such as the use of other drugs. Initially, the concentration of cocaine in crack samples, as the amount of crack and time of exposure of the animals to obtain serum levels of cocaine similar to those found in the literature were determined, and the data obtained were: 67% of cocaine in crack, and 250 mg of crack, exposing the animals for 10 minutes resulted in plasma levels close to 170 ng/mL of cocaine. Thus, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the toxic effects, immunotoxic and behavioral changes of male Wistar rats exposed to crack cocaine. Thus, in each experiment were used 30 rats divided into three groups, one control, one experimental and one pair-fed, since it is known that cocaine promotes anorexic effects that may interfere with behavioral and immunological assessments that will be studied here, and who were exposed or not to the burning of 250 mg of crack, for 10 minutes, twice daily for 28 days. At the end of the experiment, the animals were euthanized to perform biochemical evaluation, hematological, histopathological, analysis of lymphoid organs, evaluation of innate immune responses (inflammatory), humoral and the assessment of the type IV hypersensitivity reaction. Still, throughout the experimental period, these same animals were evaluated for possible behavioral changes and were used three different methods: cognitive assessment in T-maze, overall assessment on open field behavior and the evaluation of preference or aversion to the odor of the drug. Exposure to crack cocaine, did not result in changes that characterize toxicity in clinical, biochemical, hematological and histopathological parameters; were not observed clinically meaningful changes in the relative weight ratings, cellularity, morphology of lymphoid organs and phenotyping of splenic lymphocytes from rats exposed to the drug. There was no immunomodulatory effect in the evaluations of oxidative burst and phagocytosis of peritoneal macrophages and in circulating neutrophils, and the assessments of the production of T-dependent antibodies and the type IV hypersensitivity reaction. With regard to behavioral assessments, the animals exposed to the drug showed increased locomotor activity, and greater preference to the characteristic odor of crack cocaine, apparently without cognitive impairment. In conclusion, in the exposure model to crack cocaine used here, immunotoxic changes were not evident; by contrast, classic behavior of cocaine exposure were observed in the animals exposed, indicating that the model used herein will be useful for the study of other parameters involving drugs of abuse, in evaluation of therapeutic strategies and a better understanding of drugs toxicokinetics used by the pulmonary route

O uso recreacional e os efeitos deletérios de drogas lícitas e/ou ilícitas é considerado um problema de saúde pública. Dentre estas drogas destaca-se a cetamina, um anestésico empregado na veterinária e o etanol, a droga lícita mais utilizada. Além dos efeitos centrais, estudos revelam que a cetamina e o etanol possuem propriedades imunomodulatórias. No entanto, poucos estudos são realizados com a associação destas drogas; assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi o de avaliar os efeitos tóxicos, imunotóxicos, o potencial oxidativo e os possíveis efeitos neurotóxicos resultantes do consumo associado ou não das mesmas. Para isso, ratos Wistar foram tratados uma vez ao dia, por até 28 dias, com injeções intraperitoneais (15 ou 30mg/kg/PV) de cetamina (K) ou com etanol a 10% (E) via oral (gavagem ou adicionado a água de bebida), ou ainda em associação (KE). O grupo controle recebeu apenas os veículos dos tratamentos. Ao final do experimento, os animais foram submetidos à eutanásia para realização de avaliações toxicológicas, imunológicas, oxidativas e antioxidativas, e de neurotransmissores centrais. Os resultados revelaram redução no ganho de peso dos animais tratados com KE e aumento de ácido ascórbico urinário. A redução de pH e glicose urinária foi observada nos grupos E e KE. Na bioquímica, todos os grupos apresentaram aumento de HDL, porém a associação das drogas levou a um aumento do colesterol, enquanto no grupo K, observou-se diminuição dos triglicérides e da fosfatase alcalina. Ainda, somente o grupo KE apresentou alterações na função renal. Todos os grupos experimentais exibiram alterações histopatológicas hepáticas e/ou vesicais. Os grupos E e KE apresentaram alterações no número de células mieloides e linfoides concomitantes ao aumento na celularidade de medula óssea. Apenas animais do grupo KE apresentaram alteração na resposta do tipo Th2. Foi observado o aumento da peroxidação lipídica nos animais tratados com K, bem como aumento na atividade de GPx e CAT e do conteúdo de GSSG dos animais tratados com E e/ou KE nos órgãos analisados. Ao nível central, observou-se elevação dos níveis de DA e NOR no hipocampo dos animais do grupo E, e 5HT nos animais do grupo K; além de aumento de DA e 5HT no córtex pré-frontal dos animais dos grupos E e K, respectivamente. Assim, concluímos que a associação KE promove redução do ganho de peso não relacionado ao consumo de ração. O etanol, em associação ou não, promove alterações nos parâmetros urinários; a cetamina promove diminuição nos níveis de FA e as drogas quando em associação alteram o perfil lipídico e renal na dependência da dose e do tempo de administração. Efeitos pró-oxidantes entraram em equilíbrio devido à ação de antioxidantes. O etanol, em associação ou não, promove alterações em células do sistema imune, no entanto, sem promover imunomodulação sobre suas respostas. O etanol e/ou a cetamina também promovem alterações histopatológicas hepáticas, enquanto que a associação ainda promove lesões vesicais. Além disso, ambas as drogas promovem alterações no perfil neuroquímico central; porém, quando associadas não promoveram efeitos sinérgicos sobre os parâmetros avaliados. / The recreational use and the deleterious effects of licit and/or illicit drugs are considered a public health issue. Among these drugs are ketamine, used in veterinary anaesthesia, and ethanol the most commonly licit drug. Besides their central effects, studies have shown that ketamine and ethanol have immunomodulatory properties. However, few studies are conducted with the association of both drugs; thus, we aimed to evaluate the toxic and immunotoxic effects, as well the oxidative potential and the possible neurotoxic effects resulted from the consumption of these drugs associated or not. For this, Wistar rats were treated once daily for up to 28 days with intraperitoneal injections (15 or 30mg/kg/BW) of ketamine (K) or orally with 10% ethanol (E) (gavage or drinking water) or the association of both treatments (KE). Control group received only vehicles. At the end of the experimental period, the animals were euthanized for toxicological, immunotoxicological, oxidative stress and antioxidant status evaluation, and central levels of neurotransmitters. KE animals showed reduced body weight gain and increased levels of urinary ascorbic acid. Reduction of urinary pH and glucose was observed in E and KE groups. Biochemistry analysis showed an increase in HDL levels in all experimental groups; although, KE showed an increase in cholesterol levels, while K group exhibited reduction in triglycerides and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels. Only KE group showed renal function alterations. All experimental groups showed hepatic and/or bladder histopathology alterations. E and KE groups exhibited alterations in myeloid and lymphoid cells number with concomitant increased in bone marrow cellularity. Only animals of KE group presented changes in Th2 response. Increased in lipid peroxidation was observed in K-treated animals, as well as GPx and CAT activities and GSSG content of animals treated with E and/or KE. We observed elevation in DA and NOR in hippocampus of E group and 5HT in K group, in addition to an increase in DA and 5HT of the prefrontal cortex of E and K groups, respectively. Thus, we conclude that KE association promotes reduction in body weight gain not related to food consumption. Ethanol, in combination or not, promotes urinary alterations; ketamine reduces ALP levels and the drugs, when in combination, alter lipid and renal profile depending on dose and time of administration. Pro-oxidant effects were balanced due to the action of antioxidants. Ethanol, associated or not, promotes alterations on immune cells without immunomodulatoty responses. Ethanol and/or ketamine also promotes liver histopathological alterations, while this association promotes bladder lesions. In addition, both drugs promote changes in central neurochemical levels; however, when associated do not promoted synergistic effects in evaluated parameters.

O uso recreacional e os efeitos deletérios de drogas lícitas e/ou ilícitas é considerado um problema de saúde pública. Dentre estas drogas destaca-se a cetamina, um anestésico empregado na veterinária e o etanol, a droga lícita mais utilizada. Além dos efeitos centrais, estudos revelam que a cetamina e o etanol possuem propriedades imunomodulatórias. No entanto, poucos estudos são realizados com a associação destas drogas; assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi o de avaliar os efeitos tóxicos, imunotóxicos, o potencial oxidativo e os possíveis efeitos neurotóxicos resultantes do consumo associado ou não das mesmas. Para isso, ratos Wistar foram tratados uma vez ao dia, por até 28 dias, com injeções intraperitoneais (15 ou 30mg/kg/PV) de cetamina (K) ou com etanol a 10% (E) via oral (gavagem ou adicionado a água de bebida), ou ainda em associação (KE). O grupo controle recebeu apenas os veículos dos tratamentos. Ao final do experimento, os animais foram submetidos à eutanásia para realização de avaliações toxicológicas, imunológicas, oxidativas e antioxidativas, e de neurotransmissores centrais. Os resultados revelaram redução no ganho de peso dos animais tratados com KE e aumento de ácido ascórbico urinário. A redução de pH e glicose urinária foi observada nos grupos E e KE. Na bioquímica, todos os grupos apresentaram aumento de HDL, porém a associação das drogas levou a um aumento do colesterol, enquanto no grupo K, observou-se diminuição dos triglicérides e da fosfatase alcalina. Ainda, somente o grupo KE apresentou alterações na função renal. Todos os grupos experimentais exibiram alterações histopatológicas hepáticas e/ou vesicais. Os grupos E e KE apresentaram alterações no número de células mieloides e linfoides concomitantes ao aumento na celularidade de medula óssea. Apenas animais do grupo KE apresentaram alteração na resposta do tipo Th2. Foi observado o aumento da peroxidação lipídica nos animais tratados com K, bem como aumento na atividade de GPx e CAT e do conteúdo de GSSG dos animais tratados com E e/ou KE nos órgãos analisados. Ao nível central, observou-se elevação dos níveis de DA e NOR no hipocampo dos animais do grupo E, e 5HT nos animais do grupo K; além de aumento de DA e 5HT no córtex pré-frontal dos animais dos grupos E e K, respectivamente. Assim, concluímos que a associação KE promove redução do ganho de peso não relacionado ao consumo de ração. O etanol, em associação ou não, promove alterações nos parâmetros urinários; a cetamina promove diminuição nos níveis de FA e as drogas quando em associação alteram o perfil lipídico e renal na dependência da dose e do tempo de administração. Efeitos pró-oxidantes entraram em equilíbrio devido à ação de antioxidantes. O etanol, em associação ou não, promove alterações em células do sistema imune, no entanto, sem promover imunomodulação sobre suas respostas. O etanol e/ou a cetamina também promovem alterações histopatológicas hepáticas, enquanto que a associação ainda promove lesões vesicais. Além disso, ambas as drogas promovem alterações no perfil neuroquímico central; porém, quando associadas não promoveram efeitos sinérgicos sobre os parâmetros avaliados. / The recreational use and the deleterious effects of licit and/or illicit drugs are considered a public health issue. Among these drugs are ketamine, used in veterinary anaesthesia, and ethanol the most commonly licit drug. Besides their central effects, studies have shown that ketamine and ethanol have immunomodulatory properties. However, few studies are conducted with the association of both drugs; thus, we aimed to evaluate the toxic and immunotoxic effects, as well the oxidative potential and the possible neurotoxic effects resulted from the consumption of these drugs associated or not. For this, Wistar rats were treated once daily for up to 28 days with intraperitoneal injections (15 or 30mg/kg/BW) of ketamine (K) or orally with 10% ethanol (E) (gavage or drinking water) or the association of both treatments (KE). Control group received only vehicles. At the end of the experimental period, the animals were euthanized for toxicological, immunotoxicological, oxidative stress and antioxidant status evaluation, and central levels of neurotransmitters. KE animals showed reduced body weight gain and increased levels of urinary ascorbic acid. Reduction of urinary pH and glucose was observed in E and KE groups. Biochemistry analysis showed an increase in HDL levels in all experimental groups; although, KE showed an increase in cholesterol levels, while K group exhibited reduction in triglycerides and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) levels. Only KE group showed renal function alterations. All experimental groups showed hepatic and/or bladder histopathology alterations. E and KE groups exhibited alterations in myeloid and lymphoid cells number with concomitant increased in bone marrow cellularity. Only animals of KE group presented changes in Th2 response. Increased in lipid peroxidation was observed in K-treated animals, as well as GPx and CAT activities and GSSG content of animals treated with E and/or KE. We observed elevation in DA and NOR in hippocampus of E group and 5HT in K group, in addition to an increase in DA and 5HT of the prefrontal cortex of E and K groups, respectively. Thus, we conclude that KE association promotes reduction in body weight gain not related to food consumption. Ethanol, in combination or not, promotes urinary alterations; ketamine reduces ALP levels and the drugs, when in combination, alter lipid and renal profile depending on dose and time of administration. Pro-oxidant effects were balanced due to the action of antioxidants. Ethanol, associated or not, promotes alterations on immune cells without immunomodulatoty responses. Ethanol and/or ketamine also promotes liver histopathological alterations, while this association promotes bladder lesions. In addition, both drugs promote changes in central neurochemical levels; however, when associated do not promoted synergistic effects in evaluated parameters.