Respirable dust, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and carbon monoxide concentrations were measured using fixed-area monitoring and contaminant mapping in a 19–crate farrowing room during the winter. Direct–reading instruments were used with fixed–area stations and contaminant mapping to evaluate concentrations during five days over a period of a three–week farrowing cycle. Concentrations were evaluated to determine the effect of the pit ventilation on contaminant concentrations, a change in concentration occurred over a sample day, and to determine if three data collection methods produce different daily respirable dust concentrations. Pit ventilation did have a significant effect on contaminant concentration in a farrowing barn during winter. Compared to when the pit fan was on, mean area contaminant concentration, with the exception of CO, was significantly higher when the pit fan was turned off (p<0.001). Mean respirable dust concentration was 79% higher, CO2 concentration was 35% higher, NH3 increased from 0.03 ppm to 10.8 ppm, and H2S concentrations increased from 0.03 ppm to 0.67 ppm. A significant change in area respirable dust (p<0.001) and CO2 (p<0.001) mean concentrations occurred over time throughout the course of a sample day. Mean area respirable dust concentrations were highest in the beginning of the sample day and decreased by 77 % (pit fan off) to 87% (pit fan on) over a five–hour sample period. Higher concentrations were likely attributed to the feeding period that occurred early in the day. When the pit fan was turned off, mean area CO2 concentrations increased by 24% by the end of the sample day due to the inefficient ventilation and the constant production of CO2 generated by the swine. Finally, comparing the three data collection methods produced similar results concerning the ranking of the daily mean concentrations of respirable dust; however, differences were seen in the magnitude of the daily average respirable dust concentrations across the three data collection methods, which might lead to different interpretations of risk. To ensure risk is not underestimated, multiple fixed–area monitors are recommended to characterize room concentrations. Throughout the study, contaminant concentration did not exceed regulatory or international consensus standards; however, recommended agricultural health limits suggested in the literature were exceeded for respirable dust, CO2, and NH3. These findings indicate the need to consider personal exposures to those working in farrowing barns and control options to reduce these contaminant concentrations in production facilities.

Direct reading instruments (DRIs) are popular devices for measuring aerosols because they provide rapid on-site measurement of particle size and/or concentration. However, the output of DRIs may drift over time requiring frequent manufacturer calibration. Given the possibility of drift, the output of DRIs should ideally be verified to ensure proper response before and after field use. Methods for verifying the output of DRIs particle size reading are available for use in laboratory and field. However, methods for verifying the DRIs concentration reading are complex and often use of stationary installations that are not suited for field work. The objective of this study was to develop a verification device that can be used in the field to verify the output of DRIs for measuring aerosol concentration. The new device uses a nebulizer that produces aerosols through vibrating mesh technology. This vibrating mesh nebulizer (VMN) uses only electrical input to generate aerosols and does not require compressed air. The verification device was able to produce stable output of aerosols at low concentrations (0.2 mg/m3 to 1.2 mg/m3). It was also possible to produce different concentration levels of aerosol by changing the electrical current to the VMN. The verification device was used to monitor and validate the output of a condensation particle counter and a photometer. Results showed that both instruments having valid output and did not require manufacture calibration. The verification device made it possible to monitor and verify the output of two DRIs. This was achieved by generating reproducible aerosol output with specific composition. This verification device presents a practical method to verify the concentration output of DRIs for measuring aerosols.

Indoor air contaminants such as dust and gases are present in concentrations that may be hazardous to worker health in poultry production. Poultry dust may contain inflammatory agents (e.g., endotoxin) and inhalation exposure has been associated with pulmonary symptoms. The current control practice to reduce worker exposure to poultry dust is the use of respiratory protection (e.g., filtering face-piece respirators). Limited research has been conducted to evaluate engineering controls to reduce dust concentrations in broiler chicken production. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of a water sprinkling system to reduce inhalable dust and ammonia concentrations in a broiler chicken house. Inhalable dust and ammonia concentrations were measured daily for the production cycle of a flock of broiler chickens (63 days). Inhalable dust was measured gravimetrically using an inhalable sampler and ammonia was measured by a direct reading sensor. Sampling was performed on a stationary mannequin inside two broiler chicken houses. One house used a sprinkler cooling system to deliver a water mist throughout the house and the second house was an untreated control. The sprinkler system activated 5 days after chicken placement and continued through day 63 of the broiler chicken production cycle. The following sprinkler activation program was used each hour from 6am to 10pm: days 5 – 9 five seconds, days 10 – 14 ten seconds, and days 15-63 for fifteen seconds. Geometric mean (GM) inhalable dust concentrations collected in the treatment house (5.2 mg/m3) were lower than those found in the control house (6.0 mg/m3). The GM ammonia concentration within the treatment house was higher at 10.6 ppm (GSD: 1.80), compared to the control house (GM 9.51 ppm; GSD: 1.77). However, the observed differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.33 and p = 0.34, respectively). Concentrations of inhalable dust were reduced by 11β when using the water sprinkling system, however the reduction was not statistically significant. The observed reduction in dust concentration was not sufficient to eliminate the need for respiratory protection.

In June 2008, the Cedar River crested flooding more than 5,000 Cedar Rapids homes. Residents whose homes were flooded were invited to participate in this study. We characterized exposures and symptoms experienced by individuals inhabiting 73 flood-damaged homes. Exposures and questionnaire-based health assessments were compared at two levels of remediation, in-progress and completed. Homes with remediation in-progress (n=24), as compared to the completed homes (n=49), had significantly higher airborne concentrations of mold, bacteria, iPM, endotoxin and glucan. Residents of in-progress homes had a significantly higher prevalence of doctor diagnosed allergies (adjusted OR=3.08; 95%CI: 1.05-9.02) and all residents had elevated prevalence of self-reported wheeze (adjusted OR=3.77; 95%CI: 2.06-6.92) and prescription medication use for breathing problems (adjusted OR=1.38; 95%CI: 1.01-1.88) after the flood as compared to before. Proper post-flood remediation led to improved air quality and lower exposures among residents living in flooded homes. Recognition of endotoxin as a proinflammatory ligand for pattern recognition receptors has increased the demand for endotoxin assessment in studies of environmental lung disease. Measurements using the Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL) assay of air and reservoir dust samples are routinely incorporated into epidemiologic studies. However, it is unknown if endotoxin reactivity in the LAL assay varies by its physical presentation as aggregates, as membrane components of whole bacteria or as shed membrane blebs or if this parallels differences in the inflammatory potency of endotoxin in vivo. Endotoxins as14C-labeled-lipooligosaccharide (14C-LOS) and 14C- labeled-lipopolysaccharide (14C-LPS) were produced from Neisseria meningitidis and Escherichia coli. The reactivity of the endotoxin presentations was assessed in the LAL assay and in vivo using a murine model. The LAL assay significantly underestimated the quantity of endotoxin in the whole bacteria form whereas there was no significant difference in detecting endotoxin in aggregate and bleb forms. The failure of the LAL assay to equally quantify endotoxin was not mirrored in vivo where all three presentations of endotoxin were equally inflammatory. The inability of the LAL assay to detect the full quantity of endotoxin presented in the whole bacteria form has troubling implications for exposure assessment studies. Various extraction methods were applied to samples of known endotoxin quantity to improve the detection ability of the LAL assay. Extraction using EDTA and Tris/EDTA significantly improved the detection of endotoxin compared to the reference method of extracting in pyrogen-free water. These extraction methods also significantly increased the quantity of endotoxin measured in house and barn dust samples. A higher quantity of endotoxin measured in the LAL assay corresponded to a higher neutrophilic response in vivo. A standardized methodology for endotoxin detection that mimics the in vivo response is necessary for accurate and consistent endotoxin analysis.

Purpose To evaluate costs associated with hospitalization due to Firearm-Related Violence and Injuries (FREVI) in the United States over the last decade, 2001-2009. We explored the following research questions: 1. Is there an increase in the prevalence of firearm injuries over the last decade (2001-2009)? 2. What are the demographic patterns that characterize FREVIs in the U.S (i.e., age, sex, racial and ethnic variations, urban/rural locations)? 3. What are the costs associated with firearm-related hospitalizations in the US? Methods This is a descriptive cross-sectional study. A stratified sample of 54,875 hospital discharges were extracted from the National Inpatient Sample Database (NIS-HCUP) using E-Codes (ICD-9) for FREVI. We performed trend analyses to determine the cost and prevalence of the firearm related injuries. Results An estimated 268,639 firearm-related hospital discharges were observed from 2001-2009. Homicidal intent was the leading cause of FREVI, followed by accidents. Hispanic and blacks were more likely to become injured by firearms as compared to whites. Young adults aged 18-34 were more prone to firearm injuries than children and the elderly. Male sex, urban residence and being black or Hispanic were the main risk factors for firearm-related hospitalizations. The average cost of firearm-related hospitalization to the United States is $60,000 every hour, $17,700 per firearm injury related admission, and total of $5.28 billion for the last decade. The prevalence of FREVI and cost trends remained constant over the last decade. Conclusion Firearm Related Violence and Injuries (FREVI), and associated costs remain a major source of hospital-related expenditures in the United States. The constant trend in number of firearm injuries per year over the last decade suggests the absence of effective policy measures to curtail firearm injuries

The present study explores the process through which the regulation of emotions at work, also known as emotional labor, depletes self-regulatory resources, specifically energy, and distally impacts health behaviors in the form of less physical activity and more unhealthy eating. Differences in relationships between two forms of emotional labor, surface acting and deep acting, as well as differences between psychological and physical energy depletion, are explored. Additionally, the roles of trait mindfulness and future temporal focus are examined as between-individual differences moderating the proposed relationships. Multi-level analysis of daily diary data collected from participants (N = 108 participants) over ten work days (N = 1,273 total days) demonstrates that surface acting at work, but not deep acting, is negatively related to after work energy levels, such that participants reported less energy on days when they engaged in more surface acting. No significant differences in strength of relationships for physical versus psychological energy depletion were found. After work energy depletion related to less time and intensity spent on physical activity, but no support for an overall mediated effect was found. No significant effects were found for unhealthy eating, or future temporal focus, while trait mindfulness did positively relate to energy levels in several models. Theoretical and practical implications, as well as future research directions, and methodological recommendations for researchers wishing to conduct similar studies are presented. As one of the first attempts to examine the mechanisms linking emotional labor and health behaviors, this study highlights the intricate nature of the relationships examined and the resultant need for both broader and more targeted multi-faceted research at multiple-levels of analyses to further explain the complex story of work and health.

This study examined the effects of the presence of fungal growth on the phthalate ester content of plasticized polyvinyl chloride (pPVC) used as the vapor barrier component of metal building insulation and the impact the fungal growth may have on the resulting exposure potential to the workers in the building. Individual pieces of the pPVC material exhibiting fungal growth and individual pieces of the pPVC material exhibiting no fungal growth were collected from the building being investigated. Twenty-five pieces each of the pPVC material exhibiting fungal growth and of the pPVC material exhibiting no fungal growth were weighed, reduced to small pieces, and extracted with dichloromethane. The extracts were analyzed using a gas chromatograph coupled with a mass spectrometer. The phthalate content of four phthalate esters identified in the pPVC: diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), butyl benzyl phthalate (BBP), and di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), was quantified and the results extrapolated to concentration based on weight ([um]g/Kg) and area ([um]g/m2). A paired samples t test and independent samples t test was used to identify where significant differences occurred (α = 0.05) in the phthalate content between pieces. Using the mean concentration for each phthalate ester, a worst-case-scenario exposure was modeled. There was a statistically significant difference in the phthalate ester content between the pPVC exhibiting fungal growth and pPVC exhibiting no fungal growth for all four phthalate esters investigated. The mean phthalate ester concentration ranged from 13.74 [um]g/m2-34.94 [um]g/m2 in the pPVC exhibiting no fungal growth and 12.00 [um]g/m2-30.63 [um]g/m2 in the pPVC exhibiting fungal growth. The modeled exposure concentration in the building ranged from 0.39 [um]g/m3-0.98 [um]g/m3 and was generally lower than published exposure concentrations in similar settings.

In order to describe the trend, characteristics, and cost of occupational injuries that occurred in industrial settings across the United States between 1998 and 2009, a cross sectional analysis based on hospital discharge data was conducted. The National Inpatient Sample (NIS) data from the Healthcare and Cost Utilization Project (HCUP)(1) was used. Identification of relevant injuries from the sample was performed using the International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification (ICD-9 CM) code E849.3 (industrial place and premises)(8). A total of 307,586 (weighted) patients with industrial related injuries were discharged from hospitals in the United States during the period 1998-2009. They were largely male (81.8% vs. 16.6% female) and made up of 48.6% Non-Hispanic Whites, 18.2% Hispanic, and 6.2% Non-Hispanic Black. Two-thirds of patients were within the [25-54] years age group, broken down as 20.4%, 24.8% and 22.1% in the 25-34, 35-44, and 45-54 years age group respectively. Persons in the ≥65 age group also represented a sizable proportion at 7.3%. The patients were mostly admitted from an Emergency Department (61.2%), followed by routine/standard admissions (22.2%). While they were for the most part discharged home (81.7%), 7.2% were released to a home care facility, 7.9% to another type of facility, and 0.7% died during their stay in the hospital. As for the geographical distribution, 38.9% were admitted in the West, 24.6% in the South, 19.5% in the Midwest, and 17% in the Northeast United States. Furthermore, 88.6% were admitted in a hospital in urban settings vs. 11.2% in rural settings. The common injury sites were lower and upper extremities (52.6%), multiple locations (14.2%), trunk (9.3%), and head (8.9%). Of all admissions, 48.4% involved fractures, followed by open wounds (25.7%), internal crush injuries (19.4%), and superficial contusions (10.1%). "Foreign Body Entering through Orifice" (0.5%) and poisoning (2.3%) scored the lowest, while burns (5.8%), dislocations (3.9%), and crushing (5%) were noted as well. The mean length of stay was 4.09 days (95% CI 3.92 - 4.22), while the 95th percentile was ≤13 days. When analyzed by injury site, persons with multiple injuries stayed the longest, averaging 6.21 days (95% CI 5.85 - 6.57) while those with injuries at extremities stayed the shortest, 3.53 days (95% CI 3.42 - 3.65). Patients admitted for burns stayed 7.21 days on average (95% CI 6.52 - 7.9) while those with sprain/strain injuries (2.87 days, 95% CI 2.71 - 3.02) and poisoning (2.92 days, 95% CI 2.69 - 3.16) stayed the shortest. Overall, the mean cost of care (crude 2001-2009) was $10,153 per admission. Viewed from the injury site angle, the "multiple" category was the most costly at $17,518 and "extremity" the lowest ($8,269). Diagnostics of "Foreign Body Entering through Orifice" were the most expensive, costing on average ($17,036), closely followed by "burns" ($16,495), while "poisoning" was the least costly, with a mean cost of $6,077. Using Joinpoint regression modeling, we found an overall annual percentage rate change (APC) decrease (-1.73%) over the course of the study. While this improvement was noted in most study sub-segments, it was reversed for women (1.53%), government insurance (Medicare/Medicaid) recipients (7.72%), and older workers (9.16%). The results also revealed a high annual percentage rate (APC) decrease for Hispanics (-9.65%) for the period 1998-2004, jumping to (-18.65%) from 2007 to 2009. A similar pattern with two models was noted for the younger [18-24] age group where the annual percentage rate decreased constantly by (-2.08%) during the period 1998-2007 and drastically jumped to (-18.34%) from 2007 to 2009. In conclusion, a comprehensive trend analysis of industry-related occupational injuries recorded nationwide within the United States as presented in this study is useful to policy makers in formulating targeted strategies and allocation of resources as needed to address disparities found at various levels. Disparities found in trends observed from a gender angle calls for action to reverse the positive rate recorded for females (1.53%) when compared to males (-2.74%). Similarly, there is a call for action to address the age demographic disparity for older worker, the "≥65" age group exhibiting an alarming rate of occupational injuries (9.16%), bucking an across-the-board general negative trend.

The study was a comparative retrospective analysis to determine the effectiveness of MORT (Management Oversight and Risk Tree), a system safety method, in reducing the incidence and cost of occupational injuries occurring at the Tennessee Wheel and Rubber Company. Implementation of MORT on April 1, 1974 at the plant facility allowed for statistical comparison of accidents between the time periods April 1, 1972 through March 31, 1974 and April 1, 1974 through March 31, 1976. Data on injury incidence were gathered by researching the company's worker compensation reports. Cost figures for injuries were drawn from computer printouts provided by the company's insurance carrier. reliable figure for the mean incidence of injuries occurring over the twenty-four month control period and twenty-four month experimental period was determined by calculating monthly injuries per one thousand man hours using the occupational injury rate formula: Total Number of Occupational Injuries Per Month Total Number of Man Hours Worked Per Month X 1000. A figure for mean occupational injury cost rate was determined by calculating annual cost of injuries per one thousand man hours worked for the control and experimental periods using the formula: Total Cost of Occupational Injuries (Year) Total Number of Man Hours Worked (Year) A 1000. Statistical analyses using a t-test at the .05 level of significance was applied to determine if MORT implementation was effective in reducing the mean incidence rate and mean cost of occupational injuries. Results showed a statistically significant reduction in the occupational injury incidence rate at the Tennessee Wheel and Rubber Company following introduction of MORT system safety. MORT implementation did not, however, result in a significant reduction in the cost of occupational injuries between the control and experimental periods. The resultant discrepancy in findings (rejection of Ho1 and acceptance of Ho2) might be explained by: 1) the fact that no medical cost inflation factor was used when comparing injury costs between the two time periods under study, and 2) types of injuries were not differentiated in terms of severity of injuries. The findings brought forth from this research indicate a degree of uncertainty as to the application of MORT to general industry.

Despite regulatory efforts of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 104 cases of nonfatal occupational illnesses and injuries (OIIs) per 10,000 full-time workers required time away from work in 2015. Although OII rates in private and public sectors are high, the rates among state and local government agencies were over 50% higher than private sector rates in 2015, especially in the healthcare industry. OIIs can lead to reduced organizational productivity and performance. Guided by the leader member exchange theory (LMXT) and risk homeostasis theory (RHT), the purpose of this single case study was to explore effective strategies that supervisors in a government agency in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States use to reduce OIIs. Data were collected from face-to-face semistructured interviews with 8 purposefully selected supervisors who had reduced OIIs and the review of company documents. Data were analyzed using inductive coding of phrases, word frequency searches, and theme identification. Four themes emerged: managing employee risk-taking behaviors reduced OIIs, communicating the importance of safety with employees decreased OIIs, having high-quality relationships with employees reduced and mitigated OIIs, and continuous education and training reduced OIIs. Both the LMXT and RHT were essential in exploring the role that education and training played in reducing OIIs. Findings may provide government agencies with valuable information that may lead to a healthier and safer work environment, increased productivity and profitability, and healthier lifestyles inside and outside of the workplace.