Influenza causes annual global epidemics and severe morbidity and mortality. The influenza virus evolves to escape from immune system antibodies that bind to it. The immune system produces influenza virus specific antibodies by VDJ recombination and somatic hypermutation. In this dissertation, we analyze the mechanism of influenza virus evolution and immune system dynamics using theoretical modeling and computational simulation. The first half of this thesis discusses influenza virus evolution. The epidemiological data inspires a novel sequence-based antigenic distance measure for subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 virus, which are superior to the conventional measure using hemagglutination inhibition assay. Historical influenza sequences show that the selective pressure increases charge in immunodominant epitopes of the H3 hemagglutinin influenza protein. Statistical mechanics and high-performance computing technology predict fixation tendencies of the H3N2 influenza virus by free energy calculation. We introduce the notion of entropy from physics and informatics to identify the epitope regions of H1-subtype influenza A with application to vaccine efficacy. We also use entropy to quantify selection and diversity in viruses with application to the hemagglutinin of H3N2 influenza. Using the bacterial E. coli as a model, we show the evidence for recombination contributing to the evolution of extended spectrum β-lactamases (ES-BLs) in clinical isolates. A guinea pig experiment supports the discussion on influenza virus evolution. The second half of the thesis discusses immune system dynamics. We design a two-scale model to describe correlation in B cell VDJ usage of zebrafish. We also introduce a dynamical system to model original antigenic sin in influenza. This dissertation aims to help researchers understand the interaction between influenza virus and the immune system with a quantitative approach.

Proteins are essential building blocks in every living cell, and since the complete human genome was sequenced in 2004, researchers have attempted to map the human proteome, which is the functional representation of the genome. One such initiative is the Human Protein Atlas programme (HPA), which generates monospecific antibodies towards all human proteins and uses these for high-throughput tissue profiling on tissue microarrays (TMAs). The results are publically available at the website www.proteinatlas.org. In this thesis, TMAs were used for analysis of expression patterns in various research areas. Different search queries in the HPA were tested and evaluated, and a number of potential biomarkers were identified, e.g. proteins exclusively expressed in islets of Langerhans, but not in exocrine glandular cells or other abdominal organs close to pancreas. The identified candidates were further analyzed on TMAs with pancreatic tissues from normal and diabetic individuals, and colocalization studies with insulin and glucagon revealed that several of the investigated proteins (DGCR2, GBF1, GPR44 and SerpinB10) appeared to be beta cell specific. Moreover, a set of proteins differentially expressed in lung cancer stroma was further analyzed on a clinical lung cancer cohort in the TMA format, and one protein (CD99) was significantly associated with survival. In addition, TMAs with tissue samples from different species were generated, e.g. for mapping of influenza virus attachment in various human and avian tissues. The results showed that the gull influenza virus H16N3 attached to human respiratory tract and eye, suggesting possible transmission of the virus between gull and human. TMAs were also used for analysis of protein expression differences between humans and other primates, and two proteins (TCF3 and SATB2) proved to be significantly differentially expressed on the human lineage at both the protein level and the RNA level.   In conclusion, this thesis exemplifies the potential of the TMA technology, which can be used for analysis of expression patterns in a large variety of research fields, such as biomarker discovery, influenza virus research or further understanding of human evolution.

<p>Monocytes and monocyte-derived cells are important in providing innate immunity against various pathogens. Monocytes become macrophages or dendritic cells after they enter tissues during inflammation. Macrophages phagocytose microbes and kill them intracellularly in lysosomes. After macrophages are activated, they secret a variety of cytokines as part of innate defense. However, such cytokines have been implicated in causing autoimmune diseases and influenza-induced pathology. For these reasons, we have investigated the role of monocytes and monocyte-derived cells in inducing immune pathology. Moreover, monocytes are also thought to affect adaptive immunity by shaping T cell responses. Yet the enterity of their contributions to adaptive immune response remains to be determined. </p><p>CCR2 is the chemokine receptor required for inflammatory monocytes to enter tissues, and its deficiency in mice has been shown to be protective for influenza-induced immune pathology. We hypothesized that cells that depend on CCR2 to migrate into inflammaed lungs are the cells that induce immune pathology during influenza infection. First, we identified cell types that are recruited to the lungs by CCL2. Similar myeloid cell types, monocytes, monocyte-derived DCs (moDCs), and exudated macrophages (exMAC), also accumulate in the lungs during influenza infection. We then show that these myeloid cells types are derived from monocytes, and that they produce high levels of TNF-&#945; and NOS2. Finally, we show a strong correlation between reduced accumulation of myeloid cells and decreased influenza-induced pathology and mortality in CCR2-deficient mice, suggesting that CCR2 inhibition may be a viable therapy for highly pathogenic influenza infection.</p><p>In the second part of this work, we focus on monocyte-derived dendritic cells in lymph nodes (LN). Inflammatory DCs in LN can arise from moDCs recruited via lymphatics (peripheral moDCs) and from inflammatory monocytes that enter LN directly from the blood (blood-derived moDCs). We examine the role of blood-derived moDCs in inducing LN T cell activation and polarization after immunogenic stimuli. We find that, following viral infection or immunization, inflammatory monocytes are recruited into LN directly from the blood to become CD11c<super>+<super>CD11b<super>hi<super>Gr-1<super>+<super> inflammatory DCs, which produce high levels of IL-12 (p70) and potently stimulate Th1 responses. This monocyte extravasation requires CCR2 but not CCL2 or CCR7. Thus, inflammatory DCs accumulation and Th1 responses are markedly reduced in CCR2<super>-/-<super> mice, preserved in CCL2<super>-/-<super> mice, and relatively increased in CCL19/21-Ser-deficient <italic>plt<italic> mice, in which all other LN DC types are reduced. </p><p>Our findings provide important insights into mutiple roles that monocytes play in both innate and adaptive immunity. Monocytes provide an early response against pathogens. As we now demonstrate, this response can be excessive, leading to a significant immune pathology during influenza infection that has been previously attributed to neutrophils. We also provide the first demonstration that monocytes play an important role in regulating adaptive immune responses. We find that monocyte-derived DCs are both sufficient and necessary for the development of Th1-polarized immune responses within LNs. Taken together, our results demonstrate that the roles played by monocytes in innate immunity adaptive immunity, and immune pathology are much greater than previously appreciated and that regulating monocyte function may be an effective means to regulate certain types of immune responses.</p> / Dissertation

HLA-DR1 transgenic (DR1 Tg) mice provide a model for evaluating the breadth and specificity of CD4 T cell responses that may develop in humans following influenza infection or vaccination. Recent studies identified a tremendously broad HLA-DR1-restricted CD4 T cell responses in DR1 Tg mice infected intranasally with influenza A/New Caledonia/20/99 (NC). In this study, our goals were to characterize B cell responses after NC infection in DR1 Tg mice and establish the correlation between B cell responses and CD4 T cell responses in this system. Influenza-specific B cell responses following virus administration were analyzed in DR1 Tg mice and in the genetically matched H-2b strain C57BL/10J (B10). Following intranasal (i.n.) NC infection, B cell responses in B10 mice featured strong IgG2b and IgG2c production and were typical of previously described B cell responses to a variety of mouse-adapted influenza strains. In contrast, B cell responses in DR1 Tg mice followed delayed kinetics and were strongly skewed to IgG1 production, suggesting the Th2 polarization of CD4 T cell responses. The different antibody isotype profile in DR1 Tg mice compared to B10 mice was evident in antibody secreting cells (ASCs) frequencies and in circulating Abs levels. Surprisingly, although DR1 Tg mice had lower influenza-specific Abs levels, they exhibited higher neutralizing Abs titers early in the response. B cell responses following intranasal infection of influenza A/Puerto Rico/8/1934 (PR8) or intramuscular vaccination of inactivated NC in DR1 Tg mice were different from the observed IgG1 bias after i.n. NC infection. After i.n. PR8 infection, B cell responses were similar in DR1 Tg mice and B10 mice, characterized by predominant IgM/IgG3 production. Additionally, following intramuscular administration of inactivated NC, B cell responses were skewed towards IgG2c production in both DR1 Tg mice and B10 mice, suggesting the Th1 polarization of CD4 T cell responses. A mechanistic understanding of IgG1/Th2 biased B cell responses and better neutralizing Abs production in DR1 Tg mice following i.n. NC infection may have implications for the optimal control of influenza infection.

Influenza B virus causes a respiratory disease in people with a compromised immune system. The NS1B protein of influenza B virus is essential for virus growth and plays a crucial role in inhibiting the anti-viral responses mounted by the infected host cell. The N terminal 104 amino acids of NS1B bind a cellular protein called ISG15. ISG15 is an interferon induced 'ubiquitin-like' protein, and upon interferon induction, is conjugated to hundreds of targets. It has been found that both ISG15 and its conjugation inhibit many viruses. The focus of the current study was to characterize the interaction between NS1B and ISG15. Study of a recombinant influenza B virus which encoded a mutant NS1B protein that is unable to bind ISG15 revealed that ISG15 is mis-localized in cells infected with wild type but not the mutant influenza B virus. Further, such a mutant virus is attenuated in growth as compared to wild type virus in human cell lines but is not attenuated in canine cell lines. This result led to the discovery of the species specific nature of the interaction between NS1B and ISG15. Specifically, NS1B was found to bind ISG15 homologs from human and old world monkeys like Rhesus macaques and African green monkeys but not those from mouse or canines. These findings were extended by identifying the hinge between the N and C terminal domains of ISG15 as one of the major determinants of species specificity. These results highlight the importance of using human or primate cell culture models to study the effect of ISG15 on influenza B virus, and raises new possibilities on differences in the function of the ISG15 system in different species. / text

The theme of my thesis is the issue of the new strain of influenza A (H1N1 Pandemic 2009) and the associated awareness of vaccination amongst the elderly. The work is divided into two parts, a theoretical and practical part. In the theoretical part, I tried to comprehensively process the available knowledge on the origins, epidemiology and prevention of influenza with particular emphasis on vaccination, oriented towards the elderly. The practical part is focused on mapping the awareness of the elderly of the issue of vaccination against influenza and analysis of results from a research exploratory investigation. The data acquisition method I used was quantitatively oriented research using anonymus questionnaires. Altogether, I distribued 350 questionnaires; the final number for data processing was 191 questionnaires. In connection with the work I set four hypotheses: 1) More than a third of respondents were vaccinated against the new strain of influenza A (H1N1 Pandemic 2009), 2) The most common reason for not being vaccinated was a lack of information. 3) The size of the place of residence significantly contributes statistically to a sense of awareness of respondents on this issue, 4) More than half of respondents would like to obtain more information on the issue of the new strain of influenza type A (Pandemic H1N1 2009). I confirmed or refuted the formulated the hypotheses based on survey evaluation. The results of the survey showed that most respondents do not feel that they are sufficiently informed about the issue of the new strain of influenza, and therefore discard the use of vaccinations. With this work I would like to stress the importance of information, which can help people consider the risks of influenza and motivate them to be vaccinated. Vaccination is an important means of protection against influenza viruses particulary for high-risk groups including the elderly. For this reason I consider the dissemination of information as very important and I hope that my thesis also serves this purpose.

CoordenaÃÃo de AperfeiÃoamento de Pessoal de NÃvel Superior / O vÃrus influenza à o Ãnico com a habilidade de causar epidemias anuais recorrentes em curto espaÃo de tempo, atingindo todas as faixas etÃrias, ocorrendo com maior gravidade em crianÃas e idosos. Este estudo teve como objetivo conhecer os aspectos demogrÃficos e o padrÃo de sazonalidade das infecÃÃes respiratÃrias agudas (IRAs) causadas pelo vÃrus influenza em crianÃas atendidas no Hospital Infantil Albert Sabin, na cidade de Fortaleza â CearÃ, no perÃodo de janeiro de 2001 a julho de 2004. Foram coletadas 1950 amostras de aspirado de nasofaringe de crianÃas com sintomas de infecÃÃo respiratÃria aguda. Todas as amostras foram analisadas por reaÃÃo de imunofluorescÃncia indireta. A reaÃÃo de em cadeia da polimerase com transcriÃÃo reversa foi utilizada em 47 amostras positivas por imunofluorescÃncia indireta dos anos de 2003 e 2004 para anÃlise da variantes virais (H1 e H3 ) e influenza B. Um total de 156 amostras foram positivas para os vÃrus influenza A ou B, representando uma prevalÃncia de 8%. Entre as infecÃÃes causadas por vÃrus, aquelas causadas pelos vÃrus influenza A e B representaram 24,1%. O vÃrus influenza apresentou um padrÃo de ocorrÃncia anual regular, com surtos epidÃmicos durante o primeiro semestre de cada ano, correlacionados aos perÃodos chuvosos. Os picos dos perÃodos epidÃmicos de influenza antecederam ou ocorreram concomitantemente Ãs campanhas nacionais de vacinaÃÃo. Os vÃrus influenza A e B co-circularam em todos os anos de estudo, havendo uma predominÃncia significativa do vÃrus influenza A (91%) em relaÃÃo ao vÃrus influenza B (9%). Em relaÃÃo ao setor de atendimento das crianÃas com infecÃÃes por vÃrus influenza observouse a maioria delas foi atendida em ambulatÃrios (48,7%) e emergÃncia (39,7%). Dezoito crianÃas infectadas pelo vÃrus influenza foram atendidas nas enfermarias (11,5%). Com relaÃÃo à idade das crianÃas com influenza observou-se que essas infecÃÃes predominaram em crianÃas atà dos dois anos de idade (55%). InfecÃÃes de vias aÃreas inferiores predominaram em crianÃas atà dois anos de idade. Cerca de 65,4% das infecÃÃes pelo vÃrus influenza foram diagnosticadas como infecÃÃes de vias aÃreas superiores. InfecÃÃes de vias aÃreas inferiores predominaram em crianÃas atà dois anos de idade (68,5%). Nos anos de 2003 e 2004 foram identificadas as variantes virais A/H3 e B do vÃrus influenza, com predominÃncia da primeira (78,7%) / The influenza virus is unique with it is ability to cause recurring annual epidemics in a short time interval, affecting all ages, with larger gravity in children and elderly people. The aim of this study is to describe demographic features and the pattern of the seasonality of acute respiratory infections caused by influenza virus in children attended at Albert Sabin Children Hospital, in Fortaleza â CearÃ, over the period of January period 2001 at July 2004. A total of 1950 samples of nasopharyngeal aspirates were collected from chidren with symptoms of acute respiratory infection. All samples were analyzed by indirect imunofluorescense assay (IFA). Forty seven Influenza A or B positive samples by IFA, in 2003 and 2004, were submitted to polimerase chain reaction with reverse transcription (RTPCR) for analysis of viral variant H1 and H3 and influenza b. A total of 156 samples were influenza A or influenza B positive, representing a prevalence rate of 8%. Among the viral infections, those caused by influenza viruses represented 24,1%. The influenza virus showed a pattern of regular annual occurrence, observed during the first semester of each year, correlated to the rainy periods. The peak of the epidemic periods of influenza preceded or occurred concomitantly to the national campaigns of vaccination. Influenza virus A and B cocirculated in all years of the study, with a significant predominance of the virus influenza A (91%) over influenza B (9%). Regarding to the medical care setting, the majority of the children with influenza infection were attended in ambulatories (48,7%) and emergency (39.7%). Eighteen children with influenza were attended in wards (11,5%). Regarding to the age of the children with influenza these infections predominated in children until two years of age. About 65,4% of the influenza infections were diagnosed as upper respiratory tract infections. Lower respiratory tract infection predominated in children until two years of age. In 2003 and 2004 were identified the variants A/H3 and B, with predominance of the first (78,7%)

Le virus de la grippe A (le H1N1) pdm09, généralement connu comme le virus de la grippe porcine, a causé la toute première pandémie du 21e siècle. Le virus de grippe est un virus enveloppé à ARN qui utilise la machinerie cellulaire de l’hôte pour s’assembler à la membrane plasmique de la cellule et être relargué à l’extérieur. Dans cette étude, nous nous sommes intéressés au rôle de la protéine virale de matrice M1 dans ce processus. M1 est la protéine la plus abondante et elle est extrêmement importante pour le virus de la grippe. Les 164 résidus de la protéine M1 situés en N-terminal comprennent deux domaines basiques qui sont : le triplet d’arginine (R76/77/78) sur l'hélice 5 et le signal de localisation nucléaire sur l'hélice 6. Ils sont très bien conservés parmi les sous types de la grippe. Premièrement, pour étudier l'interaction M1-membrane, nous avons développé et standardisé un système minimal regroupant M1+M2+NS1/NEP (±M) dans lequel nous pourrons aussi observer la production de VLPs incorporant M1. En utilisant ce système, nous avons créé des mutations dans le triplet d’arginine de M1 et avons regardé l'accrochage de M1 à la membrane ainsi que l'incorporation de M1 dans les VLPs. La conséquence de ces mutations est que la protéine M1 reste dans le cytosol et qu’il y a une réduction drastique du nombre de VLPs contenant M1 relargués. La mutation du triplet arginine par un triplet alanine inhibe complètement la production de VLPs. De plus, un virus mutant avec ce triplet d’alanine n’est plus capable de produire des virions infectieux. Ainsi nous avons mis en évidence l'importance du triplet arginine dans l'accrochage de M1 à la membrane et la production de virions. Par conséquent, pour étudier l’utilisation de l'actine et de ses cofacteurs par le virus, nous avons utilisé de petits ARN interférents pour inhiber l’expression de gènes dans un système minimal de production de VLPs. Nous avons observé une réduction de la production de VLPs contenant M1 en inhibant Rac1et une augmentation de la libération de VLPs contenant M1 en inhibant RhoA et Cdc42. En utilisant un virus IAV (H3N2)-nanoluciferase sur les cellules A549 pulmonaires, nous avons étudié l'effet de la déplétion des RhoGTPases et de leurs effecteurs sur la production virale. Nous avons observé qu'avec Rac1, l'inhibition de Wave2 et Arp3 réduit aussi le pouvoir infectieux du virus H3N2 au cours des étapes tardives de l'infection sans affecter la phase précoce de d'infection. Les protéines interagissant avec M1 ont été identifiées par LC-MS/MS et incluent la cofiline et l’annexine A2. La cofiline, déjà connue pour participer à la réorganisation de l’actine pendant la phase tardive de l’infection par le virus de la grippe, est aussi un effecteur activé par Rac1, Wave2, Pak1 et LIMK afin de former des lamellipodes. L’annexine A2 est aussi connue pour séquestrer la PS au niveau du feuillet interne de la membrane plasmique cellulaire. La reconnaissance de ces groupes de PS par la protéine virale M1 amorcera finalement le processus d’assemblage viral. Ainsi, nos résultats, en décrivant le mécanisme d'accrochage de M1 à la membrane, montrent aussi que Rac1, Wave2 et Arp3 sont probablement des facteurs pro-viraux de l’assemblage et de la libération des virus de la grippe A. / The influenza A(H1N1)pdm09 virus, commonly known as swine flu, caused the very first pandemic of 21st century. Influenza virus, an enveloped RNA virus, uses the host cellular machinery for its assembly and release from the host cell plasma membrane. In this study, we were interested in the role of the viral M1 matrix protein in this process. M1 is the most abundant and vitally important protein present in influenza virus. The N-terminal 164 residues of M1 protein comprise of two basic domains which are the arginine triplet (R76/77/78) on helix 5 and the nuclear localization signal on helix 6, which are very well conserved among the influenza A virus subtypes. Firstly, to study M1-membrane interaction, we developed and standardized a minimal system consisting of M1+M2+NS1/NEP(±M) in which we could also observe production of VLPs incorporating M1. Using this system, we performed mutations in the M1 arginine triplet and looked at changes in M1 membrane attachment and M1 incorporation in VLP. As a result of these mutations, the M1 protein remained cytosolic and there was a drastic reduction in M1 containing VLP release. Mutating the entire arginine triplet to an alanine triplet inhibited VLP production completely. Also, a mutant virus with this alanine triplet failed completely to produce infectious virions. Thus we established the importance of the arginine triplet in M1 membrane attachment and virion production. Consequently, to study manipulation of actin and its cofactors by the virus, we used siRNA mediated gene silencing in the VLP producing minimal system. We observed a reduction in M1 containing VLP production upon inhibition of Rac1 and enhancement of M1 containing VLPs released upon inhibition of RhoA and Cdc42. By using an IAV (H3N2)-nanoluciferase virus on pulmonary A549 cells, we studied effect of depletion of RhoGTPases and their effectors on virus production. We observed that along with Rac1, inhibition of Wave2 and Arp3 also reduces the infectivity of H3N2 virus at the late phase of infection without any effect on the early phase of infection. The proteins interacting with M1 were identified by LC-MS/MS and included cofilin and annexin A2. Cofilin, already known to take part in the actin reorganization during the late phase of influenza A virus infection, is also one of the downstream effector linked to Rac1, Wave2, Pak1 and LIMK, for lamellipodia formation. Annexin A2 is also known to sequester PS at the inner leaflet of the cell plasma membrane. The viral protein M1 is able to recognize these clusters of PS, which ultimately initiates the viral assembly process. Thus, our results, while defining the mechanism of M1 membrane attachment, also indicate the possible involvement of Rac1, Wave2 and Arp3 as pro-viral factors in IAV assembly and release.

Le traitement actuel de la grippe repose sur des antiviraux ciblant des protéines virales qui peuvent induire l'apparition de virus résistants. Pour limiter ce risque, des thérapeutiques alternatives sont développées qui ciblent des partenaires cellulaires indispensables au virus. Cette thèse s'inscrit dans cette recherche de nouveaux antiviraux ciblant des protéines cellulaires et dans l'étude des relations hôte-pathogène indispensable à leur mise au point. Nous proposons une méthode innovante pour l'identification d'antiviraux basée sur la signature transcriptionnelle cellulaire d'infection commune à 5 virus influenza de type A appartenant à des sous types différents (H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, H5N2 et H7N1). Huit molécules induisant un profil transcriptionnel inverse à celui de l'infection ont été sélectionnées dans la base de donnée Connectivity map et 7 molécules se sont révélées antivirales sur au moins un des virus testés in vitro. Cette étude est la première à montrer qu'une sélection basée sur le profil d'expression génique peut être utilisée pour identifier des antiviraux. Cette étude transcriptomique permet en outre de caractériser les réponses cellulaires spécifiques à différents sous-types viraux. Alors que le virus H1N1 modifie peu la transcription cellulaire, les virus H3N2, H5N1, H5N2 et H7N1 modulent l'expression de gènes impliqués dans les voies MAPK, NF-KB, IRF3 et p53. L'analyse de l'implication fonctionnelle des modifications spécifiques des voies de transduction cellulaire pourrait permettre de mieux comprendre la pathogenèse particulière de certaines souches virales / The current treatment of flu relies on antiviral drug targeting viral proteins that can induce the appearance of resistant virus. To limit this risk, alternative therapies are developed that target essential cellular partners of the virus. This thesis is part of this search for new therapeutic and of the study of host-pathogen interactions essential to their development. We proposed an innovative method for the identification of antiviral drugs based on the cell gene- expression profile associated with infection with five different influenza A virus strains belonging to different subtypes (H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, H5N2 and H7N1). Eight molecules inversing the infection signature were selected from the Connectivity Map database and 7 molecules inhibited viral growth on at least one of the viruses tested in vitro. This is the first study showing that gene expression- based screening can be used to identify antivirals. This transcriptomic study provides further characterization of strain specific cellular responses. While HlN1 virus changes slightly cellular transcription, H3N2, H5N1, H5N2 and H7N1 viruses modulate the expression of genes involved in MAPK, NF-kB, IRF3 and p53 pathways. Analysis of the functional involvement of specific modifications of cellular transduction pathways could help to better understand the pathogenesis of some particular viral strains

Lors de la réplication du virus de la grippe, la protéine de matrice M1 prend part au transport des complexes vRNP. Elle interagit également avec les queues cytoplasmiques des protéines virales membranaires et la membrane plasmique de la cellule hôte au site d'assemblage, et est responsable de la structure de la particule virale. Le domaine N-terminal de M1, composé des 164 premiers acides aminés, possède deux motifs basiques exposés : un signal de localisation nucléaire (NLS, 101-105) sur l'hélice 6 et un triplet d'arginines (76-78) sur l'hélice 5. L'objectif de cette thèse était d'étudier (1) le rôle de ce domaine basique, en comparaison avec le NLS, dans l'accrochage membranaire de M1 et dans l'assemblage du virus de la grippe A/H1N1pdm2009 et (2) de définir dans notre système expérimental cellulaire les protéines virales requises pour la production de VLP (Virus Like Particles) de la grippe contenant M1. In vitro, par des tests de cosédimentation de protéines recombinantes M1 (domaine N-terminal) sauvages ou mutées avec des LUVs (Large Unilamellar Vesicles) contenant des lipides chargés négativement, il fut possible d'observer que les domaines basiques (NLS et triplet d'arginines) sont impliqués dans l'interaction M1-membranes biomimétiques, via une interaction électrostatique entre M1 et les lipides chargés négativement (comme la PS). In cellulo, nous avons pu observer que M1, lorsqu'elle est exprimée seule, ne s'accroche pas de manière efficace à la membrane. Par contre, lorsque M2 et NS1/NEP sont coexprimées, la fraction de M1 liée aux membranes est dix fois plus importante. De plus, la coexpression de M1, M2 et NS1/NEP nous permet d'observer la production de VLP par Western blot et AFM (Atomic Force Microscopy), même en absence des glycoprotéines d'enveloppe HA et NA. Par mutagenèse dirigée, nous avons pu observer que les résidus chargés négativement de la queue cytoplasmique de M2 sont nécessaires à la localisation membranaire de M1 et à la production de VLP, comme décrits dans la littérature. De manière intéressante, quand un mutant du triplet d'arginines est exprimé, il y a trois fois moins de M1 accrochée aux membranes (M1 reste cytosolique), et la production de VLP est fortement diminuée. Un mutant du NLS diminue également l'accrochage membranaire de M1 mais seulement de 10%. Ces domaines basiques, et plus particulièrement le triplet d'arginines, semblent donc être impliqués dans des interactions électrostatiques entre M1 et les lipides chargés de la membrane, ou M1 et les résidus chargés de la queue cytoplasmique de M2, ou les deux. L'ensemble de ces travaux apporte une nouvelle vision moléculaire de l'assemblage du virus de la grippe A/H1N1. / The M1 matrix protein, lying beneath the viral lipid envelop, plays many roles in influenza virus assembly. Not only it structures the viral particle but it also associates to the vRNP complexes in the nucleus and it supposedly binds to the cell plasma membrane and to the cytoplasmic tails of the viral membrane proteins at the assembly site. M1 N-terminal domain, composed of 164 amino acids, exhibits two basic domains: the NLS (Nuclear Localization Signal) on helix 6 and a triplet of arginines on helix 5. We decided to investigate the role of those basic domains regarding the molecular assembly mechanism of the influenza A/H1N1pdm2009 virus and the attachment of M1 at the cell membrane. In vitro, we observed that when the triplet of arginines is mutated, the percentage of M1 bound to LUVs (Large Unilamellar Vesicles) containing negatively charged lipids decreases, as it is the case for a full mutant of the NLS motif. In cellulo, by using cellular fractionation, membrane flotation assays, and immunofluorescence microscopy, we observed that when expressed alone, M1 is poorly bound to the cellular membranes whereas in the presence of NS1/NEP (Non Structural protein 1 and Nuclear Export Protein) and M2 viral proteins, the M1 membrane bound fraction is increased by 10 times. M2 appears to be essential for M1 membrane localization. In order to decipher the mechanism, we used directed site mutagenesis of M1 and M2. When we mutated some negatively charged residues of the M2 cytoplasmic tail, we no longer observed either the localization of M1 at the cell membrane or VLP (Virus Like Particles) production, in agreement with the literature. In addition, when we mutated the M1 arginine triplet, M1 remained cytosolic and VLP production was almost completely abolished, even when M2 and NS1/NEP were coexpressed. Whereas a mutant of the arginine triplet decreases by 20% the percentage of M1 attached to cellular membranes, a mutant of the NLS has a mild effect (10% of decrease is observed). Thus, M1 basic domains, particularly the arginine triplet, can trigger electrostatic interactions between M1 and the lipids, or M1 and the cytoplasmic tail of M2, or both, at the viral assembly site. These results highlight the molecular mechanism of A/H1N1 influenza virus assembly.