Informe de Seminario para optar al grado de Licenciado en Historia. / En el presente trabajo se muestran los elementos principales que permitieron a las sociedades que habitaron el Desierto de Atacama subsistir en tan abrupto medio geográfico, debiendo soportar la falta de agua, la gran oscilación térmica entre día y noche, el viento, la sequedad y la difícil obtención de recursos en el sitio más árido del planeta, en donde en ciertos lugares se han encontrado terrenos en que jamás a caído agua, es decir 0,0 mm en la historia del planeta.

Univ., Diss.--Bonn, 1994.

Essa pesquisa teve como objetivo identificar e catalogar sistematicamente os objetos que serviram como \'dinheiro primitivo\' na área andina durante o período conhecido como Horizonte Tardio, que vai de 1.476 a 1.534 d.C. Após este primeiro passo, tentamos precisar em quais esferas sociais estes objetos circulavam e que papel desempenhavam em cada uma delas, definindo, assim, o seu funcionamento em um sistema de valor determinado e específico. O tema da pesquisa se justifica basicamente por dois motivos: (a) a forma insatisfatória, e muitas vezes superficial, com que os trabalhos a respeito da economia incaica tratam a questão do dinheiro; (b) o costume - ao nosso ver equivocado - de entender o \'dinheiro primitivo\' por meio de conceitos alheios à realidade do antigo Peru. Para a realização dessa pesquisa foram utilizadas como fontes principais as crônicas espanholas escritas durante os séculos XVI e XVII. Sempre com o cuidado de não cair em anacronismos, fato comum quando se trata de pesquisas a respeito da economia nas sociedades consideradas arcaicas. Esperamos com este trabalho poder contribuir para uma compreensão mais ampla do \'dinheiro primitivo\' e da noção de valor entre os Incas. / The scope of this research is to systematically classify and identify the objects that served as \'primitive money\' in the Andean region during the period know as the Late Horizon, which covers the years 1476 through 1534 A.D. We tried to indicate how these objects circulated within the various social spheres and the role they played in each one of them, in order to determine their function in a system that had definite and specific values. The reason to decide on this theme was basically two: (a) the inadequate and often superficial way which money issue is dealt with in the existing works on Inka economy; (b) the general understanding of \'primitive money\' by means of concepts which are not appropriate to the reality of ancient Peru. This research was based on chronicles written by Spaniards during the XVI and XVII centuries. Throughout this work, we were careful not to fall into anachronism, since that usually happens in researches on economy about the so called archaic societies. We hope that this work may be a contribution to a better understanding of \'primitive money\' and notion of value in the Inka society.

Essa pesquisa teve como objetivo identificar e catalogar sistematicamente os objetos que serviram como \'dinheiro primitivo\' na área andina durante o período conhecido como Horizonte Tardio, que vai de 1.476 a 1.534 d.C. Após este primeiro passo, tentamos precisar em quais esferas sociais estes objetos circulavam e que papel desempenhavam em cada uma delas, definindo, assim, o seu funcionamento em um sistema de valor determinado e específico. O tema da pesquisa se justifica basicamente por dois motivos: (a) a forma insatisfatória, e muitas vezes superficial, com que os trabalhos a respeito da economia incaica tratam a questão do dinheiro; (b) o costume - ao nosso ver equivocado - de entender o \'dinheiro primitivo\' por meio de conceitos alheios à realidade do antigo Peru. Para a realização dessa pesquisa foram utilizadas como fontes principais as crônicas espanholas escritas durante os séculos XVI e XVII. Sempre com o cuidado de não cair em anacronismos, fato comum quando se trata de pesquisas a respeito da economia nas sociedades consideradas arcaicas. Esperamos com este trabalho poder contribuir para uma compreensão mais ampla do \'dinheiro primitivo\' e da noção de valor entre os Incas. / The scope of this research is to systematically classify and identify the objects that served as \'primitive money\' in the Andean region during the period know as the Late Horizon, which covers the years 1476 through 1534 A.D. We tried to indicate how these objects circulated within the various social spheres and the role they played in each one of them, in order to determine their function in a system that had definite and specific values. The reason to decide on this theme was basically two: (a) the inadequate and often superficial way which money issue is dealt with in the existing works on Inka economy; (b) the general understanding of \'primitive money\' by means of concepts which are not appropriate to the reality of ancient Peru. This research was based on chronicles written by Spaniards during the XVI and XVII centuries. Throughout this work, we were careful not to fall into anachronism, since that usually happens in researches on economy about the so called archaic societies. We hope that this work may be a contribution to a better understanding of \'primitive money\' and notion of value in the Inka society.

Universiẗat, Diss., 2007--Giessen.

Reading the Material Record of Inka Rule: Perspectives from the North Coast of PerúThe Peruvian north coast was an area rich in people and resources that was conquered by the Inka in ca. 1470. The Inka presence in the north coast has been difficult to define archaeologically because of the relative absence of architecture and objects following Cuzco canons as well as the apparent conservatism or persistence of north coastal styles, which have hampered efforts to define a chronology of the late prehispanic period. Despite these problems, fieldwork at local centers and state installations has revealed increasing evidence for the impact of Inka rule on north coastal political and economic organization. In addition, research at Inka pottery manufacturing locations has shown that potters recruited to work for the state made vessels in both local and Inka styles using local techniques. These practices are arguably linked to the use and meaning of different kinds of objects by the state, as well as Inka policies of labor recruitment and the maintenance of ethnic markers. By examining the complex relationship between style and polity, we improve our understanding of Inka rule and as well as our ability to decipher the Inka archaeological record. / La costa norte del Perú, un área abundante en recursos y población, fue conquistada por los inkas hacia 1470 d.C. Sin embargo, es difícil definir esta conquista a partir de los restos arqueológicos debido a la relativa ausencia de arquitectura y objetos hechos según los cánones estilísticos del Cusco imperial, y a la persistencia de los estilos locales. Este hecho también ha impedido que se establezca una cronología del periodo prehispánico tardío. A pesar de ello, investigaciones arqueológicas en centros locales e instalaciones estatales han aportado creciente evidencia para entender el impacto del dominio inka en la organización política y económica de la costa norte. Asimismo, excavaciones en sitios de producción de cerámica inka han revelado que los ceramistas reclutados por el Estado produjeron vasijas en estilos locales e inkas utilizando técnicas locales. Hechos como este podrían haber estado ligados al uso y significado de los diferentes tipos de objetos por parte del Estado, así como a las políticas inkas de reclutamiento de mano de obra y de la conveniencia de mantener los marcadores étnicos. La comprensión real del dominio inka, así como la capacidad de descifrar su registro arqueológico, se facilitan a través de un análisis de la compleja relación existente entre estilo y entidades sociopolíticas.

The Inka’s Dominion, Local Identity and Social Complexity in the Highland of Atacama’s Desert, Chile´s Norte Grande (1450-1541 AD)This paper presents our approach to the Tawantinsuyo expansionism in the highlands of Atacama Desert (Northern Chile), in which we suggest an alternative view to the traditional idea of a weak or indirect Inka presence in the Atacamenian territory. Therefore, we show the evidence and arguments that represent the politics, economic and ethnic complexity development when the empire had contact with the populations from the chilean desert. We concentrate in the case of San Pedro de Atacama, because it had been a point of reference to the archaeological understanding of groups that lived in its highlands, but the history is poorly known. In particular the convergence of the study of Atacamenian and Inca people in San Pedro, like in others parts of this space, allows to appreciate best the elements that characterize the social complexity of this local development. / En este artículo se presenta una aproximación a la expansión del Tawantinsuyo en las tierras altas del desierto de Atacama (norte de Chile), proponiendo un enfoque alternativo a la tradicional concepción de una presencia débil o indirecta del Inka en este territorio. Por ello, se exponen aquellas evidencias y argumentos que parecen representar mejor la complejidad social, económica, política y étnica que se encontraba en pleno desarrollo cuando el imperio tomó contacto con las poblaciones de este desierto. En particular, los autores se centran en el caso de San Pedro de Atacama, porque aún cuando se trata de una de las localidades que ha servido como punto de referencia para la comprensión de los grupos que habitaron sus tierras altas, todavía se conoce muy poco de aquellos momentos. Pero, sobre todo, porque el estudio de la convergencia de las poblaciones atacameñas e "incaicas" dentro de San Pedro, de acuerdo a experiencias en otras localidades de este territorio, permite vislumbrar en ese encuentro los elementos que particularizan la complejidad social del desarrollo local.

New Canons on Inka Architecture: Field Research at Tambokancha-Tumibamba Site, Jaquijahuana, CuzcoRecent excavations at the Tambokancha Complex by the Peruvian-Australian Jaquijahuana Project have revealed valuable discoveries about new inka architectonic structural patterns. The archaeological complex, to the west of the city of cuzco, is located on an alluvial fan and consists of high walls with stone and adobe masonry. These structures include, for example, towers and kallankas. Fortunately, this site has not been looted, although the adobe and stone blocks of the walls were dismantled for later constructions. In spite of this, the site shows a great monumentality. Tambokancha is one of the most atypical Inka sites architecturally. Among the most impressive of its architectonic characteristics is a cross shaped alignment in the complex core and its tumi (ceremonial knife) shaped general plan. / Recientes excavaciones en el complejo de Tambokancha por parte del Proyecto Peruano-Australiano Jaquijahuana han realizado notables descubrimientos de nuevos patrones de estructuras arquitectónicas inkas. El complejo, ubicado al oeste del Cuzco, está ubicado en una terraza aluvial y comprende enormes muros de mampostería de piedra y adobe, entre los que se encuentran grandes torreones y kallankas. Por fortuna no tiene evidencias de saqueo aunque sí se han desmontado sus bloques para usarlos en construcciones posteriores. Aún así, el sitio muestra una gran monumentalidad y es uno de los sitios inkas más atípicos en términos de su planificación y trazado. Destacan, entre sus características, una alineación en forma de "cruz", que atraviesa el núcleo del conjunto, mientras que el plano general es único, ya que tiene la forma de un tumi o cuchillo ceremonial.

The Socioeconomic Transformation of Farfán under Inka RuleInka political strategy in the Jequetepeque Valley was unknown until recent archaeological investigations at the administrative center of Farfan. Results of the research have demonstrated the political, economic and ideological changes initiated by the Inkas after their conquest of this Chimu center. The Inkas established new ranks of bureaucrats, constructed new storage facilities, and introduced production. A burial platform was constructed by the Inkas that, like Tucume to the north, contained the interments of an aclla-like class of females who were engaged in textile production. Under Inka rule there was an increase in population and complexity and Farfan assumed an urban aspect that had not been present during the former Chimu occupation. / La estrategia política inka en el valle de Jequetepeque era desconocida hasta las investigaciones arqueológicas recientes llevadas a cabo en el centro administrativo de Farfán. Los resultados de estas han mostrado los cambios políticos, económicos e ideológicos iniciados por los inkas después de su conquista de este centro chimú. Los inkas establecieron nuevos rangos de burócratas, construyeron nuevas estructuras de almacenamiento e introdujeron la producción. Además, construyeron una plataforma funeraria que, como Túcume, al norte, contenía los entierros de mujeres tipo aclla, las que estaban encargadas de la producción textil. Bajo el dominio inka hubo un incremento en la población y la complejidad, y el complejo de Farfán asumió un aspecto urbano que no existía durante la ocupación anterior chimú.

Matching Accounts in the Khipu Archives of Chachapoyas and Ica, PerúAccounts from the Spanish chronicles regarding Inka record keeping practices by means of the knotted string devices called khipu ("knot") indicate that these accounts were compiled in a system of "checks and balances". Each community in the empire had a minimum of four khipu accountants, all of whom are said by the chronicler Garcilaso de la Vega to have kept the same records. This study examines several examples of matching khipu accounts identified among sets of two or three khipu samples. The identification of matching khipu accounts has been facilitated by the recent development of a khipu database at Harvard University. The long range objective of this research is to investigate the information recorded on khipu samples from various provenience zones around the former Inka empire that may represent the remains of khipu archives. / Relatos y narraciones en las crónicas españolas relativas a la práctica inka de mantenimiento de registros por medio de khipus (en quechua ‘nudo’) indican que estos registros y cuentas eran recopilados dentro de un sistema de "controles y balances". Cada comunidad en el imperio poseía un mínimo de cuatro «contadores» o registradores de khipus, los que, según relata el cronista Garcilaso de la Vega, llevaban y mantenían los mismos registros. Este estudio examina diversos ejemplos de registros y cuentas afines y de concordancia compartida identificados entre conjuntos de dos o tres ejemplares de khipus. La identificación de registros de khipus con afinidad y concordancia ha sido considerablemente facilitada por el reciente desarrollo de una base de datos de khipus en la Harvard University. El objetivo a largo plazo de esta investigación es la de examinar la información registrada en ejemplares de khipus procedentes de diversas zonas a lo largo y ancho del antiguo imperio inka que pudiesen representar los restos o remanentes de archivos de khipus.