Research Doctorate - Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Asthma involves chronic inflammation of the airways that is heterogeneous in nature. Eosinophilic airway responses are well described in asthma, however non-eosinophilic subtypes of asthma have been recently reported, and can involve the influx of neutrophils into the airways (neutrophilic asthma). Neutrophils are important effector cells of the innate immune system. These cells are the first to migrate to inflammatory sites, where they contain and eliminate pathogenic microorganisms. Neutrophils also release cytokines and chemokines that initiate and amplify inflammatory responses. The mechanisms of neutrophilic asthma remain largely unknown; however activation of the innate immune response is implicated, particularly increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines Interleukin (IL)-8 and IL-1beta and gene expression of Toll Like Receptor (TLR)-4 and TLR2 have been demonstrated in induced sputum samples. This thesis examines innate immune responses of airway and circulating neutrophils, with a focus on neutrophilic asthma. Innate immune neutrophil activation occurs in response to exposure to Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which activates TLR4. The activation response consists of the release of preformed granule associated mediators such as Matrix Metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 and Oncostatin M (OSM), new gene transcription and release of inflammatory cytokines such as IL-8, IL-1beta and Tumor Necrosis Factor (TNF)-alpha, and new gene transcription of TLR2 & TLR4 which serve to amplify neutrophil responses. In addition, this thesis examines whole genome gene expression profiles of circulating neutrophils in neutrophilic and eosinophilic asthma. The aims of this thesis are based on the hypothesis that dysregulation of innate immune neutrophil responses occurs with ageing and airway disease, particularly neutrophilic asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). With advancing age, there were alterations in the innate immune responses of neutrophils, which were characterised by enhanced spontaneous activation of both airway and circulating neutrophils, and a decreased response of circulating neutrophils to LPS. There was a decreased activation of airway neutrophils in airway disease that was most pronounced in neutrophilic asthma and COPD, with decreased production and release of proinflammatory cytokines most likely due to a downregulation of TLR4. TLR2 was downregulated in resting and LPS stimulated circulating neutrophils in asthma, particularly neutrophilic asthma. Circulating neutrophils had a decreased spontaneous release of total MMP-9, and downregulation of OSM, TLR2 and TLR4 at rest in COPD. However when stimulated with LPS, subjects with COPD had an enhanced proinflammatory cytokine release, with increases in IL-8 and TNF-alpha compared to subjects with asthma or healthy controls. Analysis of whole genome gene expression of circulating neutrophils in asthma revealed distinct gene profiles relating to asthma subtype. There was upregulation of genes relating to cell motility, inhibition of apoptosis and the NF-kB in neutrophilic asthma, which would contribute to their accumulation in the airways. The innate immune response is critical in controlling infections by bacteria and viruses. The reduced innate immune response of airway neutrophils in airway disease could contribute to impaired local defense, which may lead to an increased susceptibility to infection by invading pathogens. Systemically, the molecular mechanisms of neutrophilic asthma are distinct from eosinophilic asthma and may involve the enhancement of neutrophil chemotaxis and survival, contributing to their accumulation in the airways.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2008. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 115-183).

Mutations in the Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2) gene are associated with familial and sporadic cases of Parkinson’s disease but are also found in inflammatory-related disorders such as Crohn’s disease, systemic lupus erythematosus, tuberculosis and leprosy. There is also evidence that LRRK2 is highly expressed in immune cells, particularly in macrophages, and has been functionally linked to pathways pertinent to immune cell function such as modulating the course of infections, cytokine release, autophagy and phagocytosis. Indeed, G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 is the most common mutation in Parkinson’s disease. Accordingly, we hypothesized that G2019S mutation in Lrrk2 might enhance the activation of the innate immune system. We tested our hypothesis by performing challenge experiments in a mouse model of Listeria monocytogenes, and by measuring the activation of bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) following in vitro infection with the bacterium. We found that Lrrk2G2019S mutant mice controlled L. monocytogenes better than WT mice. The mechanism behind the better control of L. monocytogenes by the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 was investigated in BMDMs following in vitro infection with L. monocytogenes. Interestingly, we found that Lrrk2G2019S mutation enhances the production of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-10 by infected BMDMs. The impact on TNF-α and IL-1β was specifically due to the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 since there was no impact on the expression of these cytokines in Lrrk2 knockout macrophages. Western blotting experiments revealed that the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 enhances MAPK signaling (TAK1, p38 and ERK). Modulation of the expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1β by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 occurred via p38 MAPK activation. The impact on IL-10 expression occurred through increased ERK activation by the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2. We did not observe any impact of G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 on the activation of NF-κB and JNK MAPK pathways. Increased expression of IL-1β by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 revealed increased inflammasome signaling. Inflammasome signaling in response to L. monocytogenes was mainly mediated by the AIM2- and partly by NLRP3- inflammasome and was dependent on activation of caspase-1. We found that Lrrk2G2019S mutation enhanced the expression of NLRP3 and caspase-1. Finally, we found that the expression of reactive oxygen species (ROS) following infection with L. monocytogenes was augmented by G2019S mutation of Lrrk2, and this can be an important mechanism that promotes the enhanced clearance of the bacterium in vivo. Overall, these results present new insights into the signaling mechanisms through which the G2019S mutation of Lrrk2 augments innate immune response which leads to better control of infection.

The phenomenon known as immunothrombosis has garnered increased attention over the last few years. Much work has been done to characterize the cross talk between hemostasis and the innate immune system. This thesis outlines the role of the vascular endothelial cells during immunothrombotic events as regulators of coagulation, platelet-, and leukocyte recruitment. A newly developed method for investigating the interaction between endothelial cells and the blood compartment illustrated the procoagulant and proinflammatory effects elicited by tumor necrosis factor α activated endothelial cells upon exposure to whole blood. The method was utilized in evaluating treatment of endothelial dysfunction and disruption with a heparin conjugate. Damaged or hypoxic endothelial cells, in addition to basement membrane collagen, that were pretreated with the heparin conjugate prior to contact with blood were found to have reduced activation of coagulation, platelet-, and leukocyte recruitment; in contrast to unfractionated heparin, which had no effect on the aforementioned parameters. The treatment was then investigated in the setting of ischemia reperfusion injury during kidney transplantation and the heparin conjugate was found to bind cultured endothelial cells with high avidity under cold storage conditions. Furthermore, it was found to bind to the renal vasculature during static cold storage and was subsequently found to be beneficial with regard to early graft function in an experimental mouse model of syngeneic kidney transplantation. Recipients of kidneys treated with the heparin conjugate had reduced serum creatinine compared to controls 24 hours after transplantation. Lastly, the anticoagulant properties of the heparin conjugate were investigated in comparison to unfractionated heparin. While the conjugate exerted reduced capacity with regard to thrombin inhibition, it rapidly inhibited the binding of platelets to exposed collagen. The conjugate was furthermore found to preferentially locate to sites of endothelial cell activation at early stage during endotoxic shock in mice. In conclusion, this thesis demonstrates that disrupted functioning of the vascular endothelial cells actively contributes to immunothrombosis, and that it is possible to model endothelial cell function using whole blood assays. Furthermore, this thesis presents a treatment that enhances the hemocompatibility of damaged endothelial cells and subsequently improves the early renal function after kidney transplantation.

Several epidemiological and clinical studies have indicated a possible role of Enterovirus (EV) infection in type 1 diabetes (T1D) development. However, the exact casual mechanism of these viruses in T1D development is not known. The aim of this thesis is to study various EVs that have been shown to differ in their immune phenotype, lytic ability, association with induction of islet autoantibodies, ability to replicate, cause islet disintegration and induce innate antiviral pathways in infected pancreatic cells in vitro. Furthermore, EV presence and pathogenic process in pancreatic tissue and isolated islets of T1D patients was also studied. Studies in this thesis for first time show the detection of EV RNA and protein in recent onset live T1D patients supporting the EV hypothesis in T1D development. Further all EV serotypes studied were able to replicate in islets, causing variable amount of islet disintegration ranging from extensive islet disintegration to not affecting islet morphology at all. However, one of the EV serotype replicated in only two out of seven donors infected, highlighting the importance of individual variation between donors. Further, this serotype impaired the insulin response to glucose stimulation without causing any visible islet disintegration, suggesting that this serotype might impaired the insulin response by inducing a functional block. Infection of human islets with the EV serotypes that are differentially associated with the development of islet autoantibodies showed the islet cell disintegration that is comparable with their degree of islet autoantibody seroconversion. Suggesting that the extent of the epidemic-associated islet autoantibody induction may depend on the ability of the viral serotypes to damage islet cells. Furthermore, one of the EV strains showed unique ability to infect and replicate both in endo and exocrine cells of the pancreas. EV replication in both endo and exocrine cells affected the genes involved in innate and antiviral pathways and induction of certain genes with important antiviral activity significantly varied between different donors. Suggesting that the same EV infection could result in different outcome in different individuals. Finally, we compared the results obtained by lytic and non lytic EV strains in vitro with the findings reported in fulminant and slowly progressing autoimmune T1D and found some similarities. In conclusion the results presented in this thesis further support the role of EV in T1D development and provide more insights regarding viral and host variation.  This will improve our understanding of the possible causative mechanism by EV in T1D development.

Η βρουκέλλα, ένα προαιρετικώς ενδοκυττάριο βακτήριο που προκαλεί μελιταίο πυρετό, ενδοκαρδίτιδα, αρθρίτιδα και οστεομυελίτιδα στους ανθρώπους, εγκαθιστά χρόνιες λοιμώξεις μολύνοντας, επιβιώνοντας και πολλαπλασιαζόμενη σε διαφόρους τύπους κυττάρων, συμπεριλαμβανομένων των μονοκυττάρων και των δενδριτικών κυττάρων. Οι B. abortus, B. melitensis και B. suis είναι τα κύρια είδη που προκαλούν βρουκέλλωση στους ανθρώπους και η B. melitensis προκαλεί την πλειονότητα των περιστατικών και την πιο βαριά συμπτωματολογία. Η ικανότητα της βρουκέλλας να παραμένει στα μολυσμένα κύτταρα εξαρτάται από την ιδιότητά της να αποφεύγει ή να αλληλεπιδρά με στοιχεία των απαντήσεων της φυσικής και επίκτητης ανοσίας. Η αρχική άμυνα του ξενιστή έναντι βακτηριακών λοιμώξεων διεγείρεται από PAMP, που αναγνωρίζονται από τον ξενιστή. Πληθώρα αποδείξεων εμπλέκουν διαφορετικά μέλη της οικογένειας των TLR στην αναγνώριση της βρουκέλλας και/ή στην εκκαθάριση της λοιμώξεως. Ένας απαραίτητος κλάδος των σηματοδοτικών οδών που ξεκινά από τους TLR είναι η οικογένεια των MAP κινασών. Οι MAP κινάσες διαμεσολαβούν κυτταρικές απαντήσεις σε ποικιλία εξωτερικών διεγέρσεων, όπως το φυσικό στρες, οι φλεγμονώδεις κυτταροκίνες, οι αυξητικοί παράγοντες και συστατικά των βακτηρίων. Αντικείμενο της μελέτης ήταν η διερεύνηση της ενορχήστρωσης των απαντήσεων της φυσικής ανοσίας έναντι ζωντανών παθογόνων κλινικών στελεχών B. melitensis σε ανθρώπινα μονοκύτταρα από τις MAP κινάσες. Αρχικά απεδείχθη ότι η βρουκέλλα προκάλεσε ισχυρή προφλεγμονώδη απάντηση με αποτέλεσμα την απελευθέρωση υψηλών επιπέδων IL-1β, IL-6 και TNF-α και ταυτοχρόνως πυροδότησε έντονη, μικρής διαρκείας αντιφλεγμονώδη απάντηση. Δηλαδή, η ζωντανή βρουκέλλα δεν αποφεύγει την αρχική αναγνώριση και κινητοποιεί ισχυρή προφλεγμονώδη απάντηση από τη φυσική ανοσία. Επιπλέον, η παραγωγή TNF-α, IL-6 και IL-10 που προκλήθηκε από τη βρουκέλλα ανεστάλη παρουσία αντι-TLR2, ενώ παρέμεινε ανεπηρέαστη παρουσία αντι-TLR4 αντισώματος. Η IL-1β δεν επηρεάστηκε από την εξουδετέρωση είτε του TLR2 ή του TLR4. Η διακοπή της σηματοδότησης διαμέσου του TLR2, αλλά όχι του TLR4, μείωσε σημαντικά την ενεργοποίηση αμφοτέρων των p38 και ERK ως απάντηση στη μόλυνση με βρουκέλλα. Επιπρόσθετα, η παραγωγή IL-1β από μονοκύτταρα μολυσμένα με βρουκέλλα παρέμεινε ανεπηρέαστη από την προσθήκη αναστολέων των MAP κινασών. Αναστολή της p38 ελάττωσε σημαντικά την παραγωγή IL-6 και εμπόδισε σχεδόν πλήρως την απελευθέρωση TNF-α, ενώ αναστολή της ERK1/2 μείωσε αξιοσημείωτα και τις δύο. Αναστολή της JNK δεν επηρέασε την παραγωγή TNF-α και IL-6. Η παραγωγή IL-10 μειώθηκε σημαντικά από αναστολή των p38 ή JNK, αλλά όχι από αυτήν της MAP2K. Τα συγκεκριμένα αποτελέσματα υποδηλώνουν ότι η ενεργοποίηση των MAP κινασών είναι σημαντικό ενδοκυττάριο στάδιο στην παραγωγή κυτταροκινών στην πορεία της βρουκελλώσεως. Τέλος, η ενεργοποίηση των MAP κινασών επηρεάζει την επιβίωση της βρουκέλλας εντός των ανθρωπίνων μονοκυττάρων. Η αναστολή της p38 ή της JNK κατέστειλε σχεδόν πλήρως την αύξηση της βρουκέλλας, ενώ αναστολή της ERK δεν μείωσε τον πολλαπλασιασμό της. Συμπερασματικά, καταδεικνύεται ότι η λοίμωξη με B. melitensis προκαλεί όψιμη ενεργοποίηση των ERK και p38 η οποία επηρεάζει την απελευθέρωση κυτταροκινών διαμέσου του TLR2. Ακόμη, η δράση των MAP κινασών είναι επωφελής για τον πολλαπλασιασμό της βρουκέλλας εντός των ανθρωπίνων μονοκυττάρων. Οι MAP κινάσες ενδέχεται να επηρεάζουν διαφορετικούς μηχανισμούς που εμπλέκονται στην ενδοκυττάρια επιβίωση της B. melitensis. Επί παραδείγματι, εμπλέκονται στη μεταφορά στο πρώιμο ενδόσωμα, την πρώιμη οξίνιση του φαγοσώματος, τη σηματοδότηση της επαγωγής του εκκριτικού συστήματος τύπου IV VirB ή τη ρύθμιση της σηματοδότησης της αυτοφαγίας. Τρέχουσες έρευνες του εργαστηρίου εξετάζουν τα συγκεκριμένα ενδεχόμενα. / Brucella, a facultative intracellular bacterium that causes undulant fever, endocarditis, arthritis and osteomyelitis in humans, establishes chronic infections by infecting, surviving and replicating in different cell types, including macrophages and dendritic cells. B. abortus, B. melitensis and B. suis are the main species that cause human brucellosis, with B. melitensis causing the majority of cases and the most severe symptoms. The capacity of Brucella to persist in infected cells depends on its stealthy strategy to avoid or interfere with components of the host innate and acquired immune responses. Initial host defenses against bacterial infection are stimulated by PAMPs, which are recognized by the host. Ample evidence implicates the different members of TLR family in recognition of Brucella and/or clearance of infection. One essential branch of signaling cascades initiated by TLR is the ubiquitously expressed family of MAPKs. MAPKs mediate cellular responses to a variety of extracellular stimuli, such as physical stress, inflammatory cytokines, growth factors and bacterial components. Object of the study was the investigation of MAPK orchestration of the innate immune response against pathogenic live clinical strains of B. melitensis in fresh human monocytes. Initially it has been shown that Brucella induced a strong pro-inflammatory response resulting in the release of high levels of IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α and simultaneously triggered a strong anti-inflammatory response that lasted for a short time. Namely, live Brucellae do not avoid the initial recognition and trigger a strong inflammatory response. Moreover, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-10 production induced by Brucella was strongly inhibited in the presence of anti-TLR2, whereas it remained unaffected by the presence of anti-TLR4. IL-1β was not influenced either by TLR2 or TLR4 neutralization. Blocking by anti-TLR2, but not anti-TLR4, markedly reduced both p38 and ERK activation to basal levels in response to Brucella infection. Additionally, IL-1β production by Brucella-infected monocytes remained unaffected by the addition of MAPK inhibitors. Inhibition of p38 significantly diminished IL-6 production and almost completely prevented TNF-α release, whereas inhibition of ERK1/2 significantly reduced both. JNK inhibition had no effect on TNF-α and IL-6 production. IL-10 production was markedly reduced by p38 or JNK inhibition, but not MAP2K. These results suggest that MAPK activation is an important intracellular event leading to cytokine production in the course of Brucella infection. Finally, MAPK activation affects the survival of Brucella in human monocytes. Inhibition of p38 or JNK almost completely repressed Brucella growth, whereas inhibition of ERK did not reduce the multiplication rate of Brucella. In conclusion, it has been demonstrated that infection with B. melitensis induces a late activation of ERK and p38 that affects cytokine release in a TLR2-dependent manner. Moreover, MAPK activity is beneficial for replication of Brucella inside human monocytes. MAPK activation could affect a number of mechanisms involved in the intracellular survival of B. melitensis. MAPK activity is involved in the transport to the early endosome, early acidification of the phagosome, signaling for induction of the VirB Type IV secretion system, or regulation of the autophagic pathway. Current studies in our laboratory investigate these possibilities.

Chlamydia is an obligate intracellular bacterial pathogen that causes a wide spectrum of diseases worldwide. At present, there are no vaccines to prevent chlamydial infections due to poor understanding of how anti-chlamydial immunity ensues. In this study, we employed a variety of in vitro and in vivo systems, including knockout (KO) mice and adoptive transfer, to investigate the role of lung dendritic cells (LDCs) and their relationship with innate lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) and invariant NKT (iNKT) cells, in host defense against chlamydial lung infections in mice. We found that iNKT cells altered the phenotype and cytokine production pattern of LDCs following C. pneumoniae infection. Adoptive transfer of LDCs from infected Jα18-KO mice, which lack iNKT cells, into naïve wild-type (WT) mice promoted Th2 (IL-4) immunity following infection challenge, whereas the transfer of LDCs from the infected WT mice induced protective Th1/Tc1 (IFN-γ) immunity. On the other hand, upon adoptive transfer, LDCs from C. muridarum-infected NK-cell-depleted mice (NK-LDCs) conferred reduced protection after chlamydial challenge than the recipients of LDCs from infected sham-treated mice (NK+LDCs). NK+LDC recipients exhibited an enhanced Th1/Th17, in contrast to Th2, response compared to the NK-LDC recipients. In coculture experiments, NK cells isolated from the infected mice promoted IL-12p70, IL-6, and IL-23 production by LDCs through NKG2D receptor signaling. These findings indicate that iNKT and NK cells condition LDCs to confer protective Th1/Tc1/Th17 immunity against chlamydial lung infection. We also analyzed the contribution of major LDC subsets, CD103+ and CD11bhi LDCs, in host defense against C. muridarum infection. We found that CD103+ and CD11bhi LDC subsets expanded following chlamydial infection. CD103+ LDCs showed higher expression of costimulatory molecules and greater production of Th1- and Th17-inducing cytokines (IL-12, IL-6 and IL-23) than CD11bhi LDCs. Coculture of Chlamydia-specific CD4+ T cells with LDC subsets revealed that the T cells cultured with CD103+ LDCs produced larger amounts of IFN-γ and IL-17 compared to those with CD11bhi LDCs. To test their function in vivo, we isolated CD103+ and CD11bhi LDC subsets from infected mice and transferred them into naïve syngeneic mice that received chlamydial challenge. CD103+ LDC-recipients showed better protection, as evidenced by their reduced body weight loss, bacterial burden and lung pathology, than CD11bhi LDC recipients. Mice that received CD103+, compared to CD11bhi, LDCs produced enhanced Th1/Th17 cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-17) in the lung and the MLNs. In conclusion, these findings demonstrate that CD103+ LDCs are more efficient in inducing Th1/Th17 immunity to chlamydial infection than CD11bhi LDCs. Taken together, our findings have provided direct in vivo evidence on the role of LDCs and their conditioning by iNKT and NK cells in generating mucosal T-cell immunity against a bacterial lung infection. The findings have added new knowledge to the field of lung immunology, which have implications for developing prophylactic and/or therapeutic strategies against respiratory diseases. / October 2015

Virus infection of mammalian cells induces several stress mechanisms, including autophagy and type-I interferon (IFN). Autophagy, a cellular homeostatic mechanism in which intracellular materials are sequestered into double-membrane vesicles and targeted to lysosomes for degradation, is also activated in response to virus infection. Most positive single-stranded RNA viruses studied to date utilise autophagy to increase virus replication. IFN is a potent anti-viral mechanism, which can be divided into two parts: (i) induction and secretion of IFN and (ii) IFN signalling and priming of uninfected cells for a rapid response upon infection and induction of an anti-viral state in infected cells. Alphaviruses are medically important RNA viruses. Semliki Forest virus (SFV) provides a well-characterised model for studying alphavirus infection. A number of strains have been identified, which differ in virulence in adult mice. In this thesis three hypotheses were investigated: (i) that SFV infection induces autophagy in cell culture and utilises this response to enhance virus replication, (ii) that the quality, quantity and/or protective efficacy of the IFN response differ between virus strains and between human and murine cells and (iii) that non-structural protein (nsP)-2 and/or nsP3 antagonise the IFN response. SFV4, SFV L10 and SFV A7(74) infection induced autophagy in Huh7 cells as early as one hour post-infection. Pharmacological induction or inhibition of autophagy had no affect on SFV4 replication, except at a very low multiplicity of infection. NsP3, capsid and dsRNA rarely colocalised with the autophagosome marker LC3. Taken together these results indicate that SFV does not use autophagosomes for replication and autophagy is not important in controlling SFV4 infection at a high MOI, at least in Huh7 cells. However, autophagy may be important in controlling SFV4 spread at a low MOI. An IFN bioassay was established. In fibroblasts, SFV4, SFV L10 and SFV A7(74) induced relatively little IFN in comparison to that induced by Sendai virus. In human fibroblasts, similar levels of IFN were induced by all three virus strains. In mouse fibroblasts, SFV4 induced more IFN than SFV L10. Treatment of fibroblasts with IFN prior to infection greatly reduced, but did not abolish, the replication and spread of all three strains. Therefore, SFV is sensitive to IFN. Analysis of IFN signalling demonstrated that all three strains of SFV inhibited STAT1 phosphorylation during infection of fibroblasts. The growth and viability of SFV infected cells varied between human and mouse cells. The complete genetic sequences of SFV L10 and SFV A7(74) were determined using Solexa (Illumina) sequencing and compared to the sequence of SFV4. The sequences of SFV L10 and SFV4 were extremely similar; only seven differences were identified. Multiple amino acid substitutions were identified in SFV A7(74) compared to SFV4, these mostly mapped to nsP3. To investigate the hypothesis that nsP2 and or nsP3 antagonise the IFN response, two virus mutants were studied: SFV4nsP2RDR and SFV4nsP3Δ50. SFV4nsP2RDR encodes a point mutation in the nuclear localisation signal of nsP2, which largely restricts nsP2 to the cell cytoplasm. SFV4nsP3Δ50 contains a deletion of 50 amino acids in the C-terminus hyperphosphorylated region of nsP3. Neither mutant inhibited STAT1 phosphorylation as efficiently as WT SFV4; SFV4nsP2RDR was particularly poor at inhibiting STAT1 phosphorylation. Both mutants induced more IFN in fibroblasts than SFV4. In summary, autophagy had a limited affect on SFV replication. In contrast, strains of SFV were highly sensitive to IFN, but antagonised this response through the nsP2 protein inhibiting STAT1 phosphorylation.

gC1qR was originally discovered as a C1q receptor specific to the globular head domain of C1q, the first subcomponent of the classical pathway of complement activation. During the same period, calreticulin (CRT), formerly called as cC1qR, was described as a receptor for the collagen region of C1q and collectins. Although much work has been carried out with relation to CRT-CD91 complex, the biological implications and structure-function studies of C1q-gC1qR interaction has not been further explored. With passage of time since 1994, it has become evident that gC1qR is also a multi-functional pattern recognition receptor that can recognise pathogens in addition to acting as a modulator of inflammation at the site of injury or infection. In this thesis, a recombinant form of gC1qR using a T7 promotor expression system was expressed and examined for its interaction with individual globular head modules of C1q A, B and C chains (ghA, ghB and ghC, respectively). A number of single residue substitution mutants of ghA, ghB and ghC modules were also analysed for their interaction with gC1qR in order to map complementary binding sites. Concomitant expression of gC1qR and C1q in the adherent monocytes with, and without proinflammatory stimuli was analysed by qPCR in order to establish autocrine/paracrine basis of C1q-gC1qR interaction. In addition, experiments were carried out to examine if C1q-mediated anti-lymphoproliferative effect can be altered by gC1qR. Subsequently, using the wild type and mutants of ghA, ghB and ghC modules, the interaction of DC-SIGN and SIGN-R, a newly discovered partner of C1q and gC1qR on the dendritic cell surface, was examined. Experiments are underway to understand how a trimolecular complex involving C1q, gC1qR and DC-SIGN participate during HIV-1 infection. Structure-function studies involving gC1qR and HCV core protein and HIV-1 gp41 have also been carried out to localise domains of gC1qR responsible for viral pathogenesis. The last chapter dwells on a newly discovered ability of gC1qR to upregulate bradykinin 1 receptor on the endothelial cell surface, thus its role in altering vascular permeability and the contact system. The thesis describes (1) localisation of interacting sites between C1q and gC1qR and their togetherness in co-expression under pro-inflammatory conditions and possibly suppression of immune cell proliferative response; (2) localisation of complementary binding sites between DC-SIGN, gC1qR and C1q and its possible implications in HIV-1 infection and antigen presenting cells such as dendritic cells; (3) localisation of interacting sites between gC1qR and HCV core protein as well as HIV-1 gp41 peptides with potential to propose a therapeutic peptide; and (4) ability of gC1qR to upregulate bradykinin 1 and 2 receptors on endothelial cells and its newly identified function as a modifier of inflammation.

Thesis advisor: Elizabeth A. Kensinger / Neural and behavioral responses to emotional stimuli often are discussed within an evolutionary framework. Although some of the information that elicits an emotional response is likely to have had evolutionary significance (e.g., snakes, spiders), many other stimuli would not have been evolutionarily relevant (e.g., guns, grenades). The present study re-analyzed data from two fMRI studies (Kensinger et al., 2007; Kensinger & Schacter, 2008) to examine whether the neural systems that respond to emotional stimuli differ depending upon whether those stimuli were of phylogenetic or ontogenetic significance. The results revealed that when stimuli were ontogenetic, activity was increased in regions of the anterior cingulate and orbitofrontal cortices. By contrast, when stimuli were phylogenetic, activity was increased in a region spanning the lingual and fusiform gyri. These results suggest that there can be differences in how emotional stimuli are processed, and those differences can depend upon the stimuli’s evolutionary significance. / Thesis (BA) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. College of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: College Honors Program. / Discipline: Psychology Honors Program. / Discipline: Psychology.