Abstract This paper is a contribution to the discussion on Innovation for Development. It is argued that innovation strategies in developing countries are the result of competing policy and contextual factors. In exploring this theme, it suggests that innovation strategies which are shaped by domestic market and policy realities are more robust and contribute towards improving the country-level performance of enterprises. The paper has seven sections which include a brief review of the literature related to innovation strategies in developing countries; a small discussion of success factors and policies of countries that offer good experiences and lessons in applying innovation strategies; a part on what policy implications to draw from the literature and the success stories for less developed countries; and a final section on the role of the donor countries in facilitating the implementation of the innovation strategies. The paper puts forward some tentative conclusions that summarise what has been learnt from the paper and affirms that the innovation-systems based strategies are indeed internationally replicable. The resulting policy and developmental frameworks will invariably exhibit high levels of variation. These differences emerge primarily from the systemic approach encouraged by the use of innovation policy. Secondly, the innovation-systems approaches ensure adaptability whilst maintaining methodological rigour. It also enables comparability and thereby also promotes appropriate and relevant benchmarking. Finally, the innovation-systems paradigm has a normative capacity to dynamically absorb and respond to the needs and demands of locally-specified domestic contexts.

KARLSSON, ISAAC (2012). REGIONAL INNOVATION SYSTEMS: POLICY AND APPLICATION IN A SWEDISH CONTEXT. Uneven economic development has been an issue of interest for a long time. Recently focus has shifted from inequalities between countries to growing inequalities within countries. With the EU as one of the most prominent supporters, regional innovation systems have become a centerpiece in the battle against uneven development. This paper examines how these strategies and policies are transferred through the governance hierarchy from the supranational level to the periphery of small Swedish municipalities. The paper also examines how these strategies, influenced by theories and empirical evidence from successful innovative regions, are conceptualized and implemented in a Swedish context. Analysis of policy documents and interviews with regional and municipal actors have been the basis of the empirical material. The criteria for selecting cases to study are proximity to a university, and key economic variables for the municipalities. The analysis indicated that there seems to be a somewhat significant policy transfer effect into the strategies of the Swedish regions, but this does not necessarily reach the municipal level. There also seems to be a gap between the transfer of the strategies to their implementation, mainly caused by ambiguities in the structure of the system, in part stemming from an absence of a national plan on innovative regional systems.

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This Master Thesis hinges on the concept of Innovation and its association with regional development as a phenomenon that has attracted both researchers and policy makers’ attention.  The thesis presents two different innovation perspectives on regional development – Innovation Systems and Complex Systems of Innovation, and applies them into the case-study of the Life Sciences Cluster in Lund. In order to do so, the key aspects of each of the perspectives are highlighted within the part devoted to the Framework of this thesis. Within these, the networks between organizations in the Innovation Systems and the actors and their interrelations in the Complex Systems perspective have been analyzed. The analysis of these aspects brings up similar outcomes in both perspectives applied, i.e. the creation of various organizations within the Cluster. Both of the perspectives account for the importance of Lund University for the creation of these organizations and subsequent development of the Life Sciences cluster.

The publications submitted for this PhD by Published Work represent the product of a decade long programme of research on the nature of the defence innovation system and the organisations, institutions and relationships that underpin defence technological innovation. This has been informed by the systems of innovation approach as well as broader academic perspectives on the nature of innovation and as such the publications are located in the field of innovation studies and in particular the sub-community of scholars that concern themselves with defence technological innovation. In the thesis, I contend that – taken together – the publications make three contributions to knowledge. First, the publications contribute to our understanding of what I term the “defence innovation system”. This illuminates an important corner ignored by most scholars of innovation systems and one that has received too little attention given the role that defence R&D and procurement has played as a stimulus to many significant technological innovations as well as its many implications for international security and society. The defence innovation system has often resisted analysis not least because of the limitations of publicly available information. My publications show recognition of the importance of this topic and shed light on the dynamics of defence technological innovation. Second, the publications contribute to our understanding of the organisations and relationships that underpin the defence innovation system and their response to changes in their operating environment since the end of the Cold War. My focus on organisation-level case studies of defence firms and government defence research establishments is in contrast to most of the academic work in this field that has been preoccupied with national or industry level structure and trends. A recurring theme in my publications, explicitly and implicitly, has been the co-evolutionary character of change in the defence innovation system and the changing relationship between government and defence industrial firms. Third, I examine changes in the boundaries of the system by introducing a transnational dimension to the analysis of defence technological innovation and in doing so my publications have drawn attention to the need to examine transnational linkages between nationally-located systems.

The intellectual roots of the innovation system (IS) approach lie in attempts tounderstand the complexities of interactive relations in the innovation process. Thisthesis departs from the systemic view that ISs rest on a co-evolutionary process, inwhich on the one hand technical and economic spheres interact with policies andinstitutions, and, on the other, those spheres affect the natural environment. There isalso evidence that ISs have access to the state-of-the-art flows of knowledge, which isperceived positively in terms of international or trans-border scientific andtechnological cooperation.Comprised of a covering essay and a set of publications, this thesis is structured as acombination of five papers containing findings of the research carried out. Thequalitative research design analyzes sustainability as a desirable theoretical constructtowards which the development of ISs should be oriented. As such, special attentionwas given to both the theoretical arguments that relate to sustainability and theimportance of a shift into a new technological regime oriented towards environmentalissues in ISs. A systematization of the two main theoretical analyses of ISs has beenalso emphasized in the thesis as interactive learning and evolutionary technologicalchange theories, which originate respectively from Schumpeterian and neoevolutionarySchumpeterian views.In Edquist’s view (2001, p.35) "there is a strong need for further conceptual andtheoretical development of the IS approach. The best way of doing this is by actuallyusing the approach in empirical research". How the shift of ISs to environmentalsustainability can come about and how they can be brought together systematically isstill a largely unexplored field of research. Accordingly, the aim of this thesis is toconceptually advance an understanding of the IS as a flexible and useful approach toencompass the environmental sustainability dimension.To address this, the thesis develops a conceptual framework for ISs that is orientedtoward sustainability; based on the interactive, resource, and environmental views;and tested empirically. The conceptual framework is illustrated empirically in the casestudies of the Brazilian subsidiary of the Swedish multinational Ericsson and and the Brazilian multinational USIMINAS, with focus placed on their interactionswith the Brazilian innovation system. Since the cases belong to different sectors, thereare variables between the multinationals in terms of the nature of innovation capacity.The contrast between the two cases in terms of technological regimes provedvery interesting, and hence formed the core of the thesis.The IS approach has been gaining ground in academic circles, as well as in the fieldof public innovation policy-making in industrialized and newly industrializedcountries. The findings of the current study suggest that ISs for environmentalsustainability can be categorized as evolutionary, natural resource based, andinternationally oriented. In the context of newly industrialized countries, theinternalization of ISs has been perceived through effects of research and developmentin multinational firms, technology transfer and the international trade of capital goods.The understanding of ISs and the internationalization phenomenon in relation tosustainability warrants further studies; notably studies are required that examine theinternationalization of ISs, empirically viewing this from the perspective of bothindustrialized and newly industrialized economies. / <p>RESEARCH FUNDERS</p><p>1) Brazilian Agency for Higher Education (CAPES); 2) the ScientificAgency of the Minas Gerais State (FAPEMIG), Brazil. QC 20130211</p><p></p>

Micro-enterprises have traditionally been connected with goods vending or trading in developing countries. But, increasingly micro-enterprises are emerging which centre on information and communication technologies (ICTs) where such micro-enterprises tend to connect ICTs into low income customers. Literature suggests that these enterprises are often unstable and have elements of informality, but they undertake innovative practices which are central both to building ICT-based livelihoods, and more widely to support the adoption of ICTs by low income users. Literature analysis suggests there are also gaps in knowledge around ICT micro-enterprises, particularly in understanding the link between innovative activity of micro-enterprises, and the wider conditions in ICT sectors. This thesis looks to explore these issues with the aim to build clear policy relevant understanding to enhance ICT micro-enterprises and low income-focussed ICT sectors. Innovation system models are adopted which are well suited to analysing interactive activities around ICT innovations, but these models initially require some refinement to fit in with the low income delivery of ICTs. This is done through integrating notions of ‘inclusive innovation’ which consider innovation from the perspective of wider development outcomes, and allow integration of a more diverse range of actors and processes around innovation. These models form the basis of qualitative study on the mobile phone sector in Kenya, with findings providing significant new insights. Firstly, empirical work is used to examine inclusive innovation models and refinements to innovation systems models are suggested based upon empirical work. Innovation needs to be conceptualised in minor processes, as well as the inclusion of wider intermediary actors and a more contextual examination of relations and institutions. Secondly, drawing on this model, it is found that the innovative activities of a range of systems actors, including micro-enterprises are vital to push innovations to be more inclusive. Thus, relationships that enable interactive learning between system actors, notably between ICT producers and demand-side intermediaries can support innovation. Crucially, where ‘reverse’ flows around innovation can be enabled and supported, then innovation tends to become more inclusive. Thirdly, policy plays a role in inclusive innovation. In one sense, conventional policy approaches in systems models hold: coherent underlying policy drives competitive markets. However, evidence also suggests that specific ‘inclusive’ policies for low income market might be successful. From a wider institutional perspective it is also important to analyse policy weaknesses which can lead to problems amongst ICT micro-enterprises, and these can be detrimental to an inclusive innovation system. In sum, this thesis makes contributions in a number of areas. Conceptually, it extends system models and offers one of the few empirically grounded studies of inclusive innovation, drawing on this ICT case. Thus, these findings potentially have applicability to examine other innovations in low income markets in developing countries. For ICT sectors with a focus on low income consumers, this work highlights new policy relevant approaches to analysing such sectors and provides knowledge about how to push innovation in the ICT sector which is more inclusive, particularly by better consideration of the important role of ICT micro-enterprises.

The thesis is submitted under the alternative format, comprising three papers. The key theoretical contribution of the thesis can be found in each of these papers. First, the thesis explores the relationship between national and sectoral systems of innovation, and emphasises the need for governmental policies at each level to be both coordinated and complementary. Second, it offers an examination of the emerging role of universities in innovation systems, which far exceeds the traditional perspective of universities as ‘knowledge suppliers’ and the more recent notion of the ‘entrepreneurial university’. Finally, it offers insight into the strategies of foreign MNEs under the context of industry clusters. The thesis discusses the development of the Brazilian petroleum innovation system following one of the largest oil and gas discoveries in the Americas for decades. The pre-salt oil reserves were discovered in 2007 and are estimated to amount to at least the 60 billion barrels of oil in the North Sea. They are located off the south-eastern coast of Brazil in ultra-deep water (i.e. depths greater than 1500m) and are named as such because they reside under a thick layer of salt (up to two kilometres in depth). The location of the reserves adds great complexity to the challenge of their extraction. It also offers opportunities for competitive advantage to those actors within the innovation system who successfully innovate in addressing this challenge. The study draws upon an empirical investigation that included forty-two in-depth interviews, conducted in 2014 and 2015, and is supplemented by documentary analysis. These interviews were largely held with governmental agencies, public universities and petroleum-focussed enterprises (both domestic SMEs and global MNEs). Each group of actors are discussed in a different empirical paper: the efforts of governmental regulatory agencies in creating innovation in Brazil’s national petroleum industry; the evolving role of public universities in pursuit of technology transfer and academic entrepreneurship; and the R&D strategies of several global oil and gas MNEs that have taken residence in the recently-established industry cluster in Rio de Janeiro. The thesis also offers much to practitioners: guidance for the enactors of innovation policy following a large natural resource discovery; a model for universities wishing to develop a portfolio of entrepreneurial support, which has been shown to greatly support a university’s own technology transfer objectives; and direction for foreign MNEs in how to adapt to changes in industry clusters. The need for and challenge of achieving cooperation between diverse actors in an innovation system are apparent throughout the thesis. This cooperation is even more important in emerging economies such of Brazil, which often suffer from a lack of coordination between actors.

Innovation is widely recognised as essential to the modern economy. The term knowledgebased innovation system has been used to refer to innovation systems which recognise the importance of an economy’s knowledge base and the efficient interactions between important actors from the different sectors of society. Such interactions are thought to enable greater innovation by the system as a whole. Whilst it may not be possible to fully understand all the complex relationships involved within knowledge-based innovation systems, within the field of informetrics bibliometric methodologies have emerged that allows us to analyse some of the relationships that contribute to the innovation process. However, due to the limitations in traditional bibliometric sources it is important to investigate new potential sources of information. The web is one such source. This thesis documents an investigation into the potential of the web to provide information about knowledge-based innovation systems in the United Kingdom. Within this thesis the link analysis methodologies that have previously been successfully applied to investigations of the academic community (Thelwall, 2004a) are applied to organisations from different sections of society to determine whether link analysis of the web can provide a new source of information about knowledge-based innovation systems in the UK. This study makes the case that data may be collected ethically to provide information about the interconnections between web sites of various different sizes and from within different sectors of society, that there are significant differences in the linking practices of web sites within different sectors, and that reciprocal links provide a better indication of collaboration than uni-directional web links. Most importantly the study shows that the web provides new information about the relationships between organisations, rather than just a repetition of the same information from an alternative source. Whilst the study has shown that there is a lot of potential for the web as a source of information on knowledge-based innovation systems, the same richness that makes it such a potentially useful source makes applications of large scale studies very labour intensive.

Este trabalho analisa os requisitos para o estabelecimento de um Sistema de Inovação Orientado para a Sustentabilidade com base na inovação biotecnológica e avalia as condições para aplicá-la no estado brasileiro do Rio Grande do Sul. A biotecnologia tem o potencial de fornecer soluções sustentáveis para alguns dos maiores desafios que a humanidade enfrentará nas próximas décadas, tais como a escassez de alimentos, acesso à energia de fontes renováveis, degradação ambiental, a saúde de uma população cada vez mais numerosa e o agravamento das mudanças climáticas. Em âmbito nacional e estadual, este trabalho apresenta a estrutura para promoção da inovação biotecnológica, incluindo aspectos como o ambiente legal e regulatório, a formação de recursos humanos, desenvolvimento de ciência e tecnologia, bem como os cenários e oportunidades de financiamento. Ao fazê-lo, permite avaliar as condições existentes que podem estimular ou dificultar o estabelecimento de um Sistema de Inovação Orientado para a Sustentabilidade (SIOS) e aponta gargalos a serem resolvidos com vistas à implantação de um SIOS efetivamente operacional. / This assay analyzes the requirements for the establishment of a Sustainability-oriented Innovation System, based on biotechnological innovation and assesses the conditions for applying it in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. Biotechnology has the potential to provide sustainable solutions to some of the greatest issues humanity will be facing in the coming decades, such as food shortages, environmental degradation, energy sources, population health, and climate-related changes. The assay presents the framework, at the level of country and state, to foster biotechnological innovation, such as legal and regulatory environment, training of human resources, science and technology scenarios, and funding opportunities. In doing so, this work evaluates the existing conditions that may stimulate or hinder the establishment of a Sustainability-oriented Innovation System (SoIS) and points to the bottlenecks which need to be addressed in order to establish an effective and operational SoIS.