The abundance of wealth and technology in the North, and biological diversity and poverty in the South provokes an inquiry into an appropriate modality for the equitable harnessing and allocation of biodiversity dividends. Over the years, the traditional knowledge relating to biological diversity has been regarded as part of the "global intellectual commons", open to exploitation by all, and subject to validation by formal methods. That knowledge has remained the source of both increasing knowledge and critical discoveries of the therapeutic values of most components of biological diversity. There is a consensus between the North and the South that an effective biodiversity conservation strategy should be one capable of providing incentives to the traditional custodians of wild habitat. Intellectual property is generally recognised as an appropriate framework to implement this objective. However, as a perennial subject of North-South disagreement, there is no consensus on the relevant details or mechanisms for deploying intellectual property rights to effectuate the objective. The United Nations Framework Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) signifies a global regime embodying the ideals of incentivising the traditional custodians of the wild habitat as well as equitable sharing of the benefits of biodiversity. Arguably, it marks an end to the idea of regarding traditional knowledge as part of the global intellectual commons. This thesis contends that the CBD regime carries with it the burden of unresolved North-South perspectives on intellectual property rights. It argues that the heart of the conflict is the reluctance of the North to accord intellectual property status to traditional knowledge. This is partly because of the latter's informal nature but most importantly it derives from an inherent geo-political ideological conflict on the subject of intellectual property rights. Presently, the recognition of rights over traditional knowledge is approached on a sui generis basis. This thesis takes the position that the approach with its several limitations is not persuasive. It contends that on the merits, traditional knowledge is, and ought to be recognised as a subject matter of intellectual property rights. The recent elevation of intellectual property (a traditional subject matter of national law) to the international level under the WTO/TRIPs Agreement further undermines traditional knowledge. This has posed a setback not only to the global biodiversity conservation initiative, but also to the quest for equitable allocation of its dividends. It is my thesis that a national approach offers a better option for accommodating the intellectual property status of traditional knowledge and consequentially for advancing the quest for biodiversity conservation as well as equitable allocation of the dividends arising therefrom.

This dissertation adds to the literature on international openness and economic growth by studying and quantifying the effects of openness to trade and multinational production using a model of endogenous innovation with firm heterogeneity. The first chapter discusses the contribution of this dissertation to the theoretical and empirical literature on international openness. The second chapter studies and quantifies the long-run effects of openness to trade and multinational production in the context of advanced economies using a model of endogenous innovation with firm heterogeneity. Counterfactual experiments conducted using a calibrated version of a theoretical model find that the US would experience a significant welfare cost in consumption terms by restricting openness to both trade and horizontal multinational production with other OECD countries, with the growth effect accounting for a substantial part of the cost. Chapter Three extends the theoretical model presented in Chapter Two to include features specific to the North-South context. I show that allowing for the possibility that the South may switch from being an imitator to becoming an innovator is essential for examining the long-run growth effect of stronger intellectual property rights. In particular, the North and the South both prefer stronger intellectual property rights because this will achieve the fastest long-run economic growth. If the South is an imitator country, the North needs to maintain its absolute advantage in technology creation by maintaining a sufficiently large pool of uncopied ideas. Otherwise both countries will fall into a slow-growth equilibrium in the long run. In Chapter Four, I account for transitional dynamics and study the gains from openness and stronger intellectual property rights that arise in the North-South context. Counterfactual experiments based on a calibrated version of the model presented in Chapter Three find that the transitional welfare gains from further trade openness between China and the OECD countries can be significant. In contrast to the existing growth literature, a deterrence of imitation has limited welfare effects when the South can switch from being an imitator to becoming an innovator country. This points to a source of potential bias in the welfare estimates provided by the existing literature. / Thesis (Ph.D, Economics) -- Queen's University, 2012-05-18 10:18:34.338

Saskatchewan’s lentil producers are positively impacted when their temporary competitive advantage in the industry, which in part is derived from high yielding Saskatchewan-bred lentil varieties, is eroded though ineffective intellectual property (IP) protection. The ineffective IP protection occurs due to the inconsistency in the enforcement of policies and laws across countries, making it difficult to protect IP when exporting products. Additionally, intellectual property protection of lentils is inefficient is when viable seeds are obtained by other countries through the export of whole seeds. This is because lentils are an open pollinated crop and intellectual property cannot be protected through hybrid seed technology. This is an issue because the Canadian red lentil (CRL) varieties have been bred for the Saskatchewan climate, but are well suited to grow in countries that have similar climates, and therefore are well adapted to large regions of Russia and Kazakhstan. The similarity in growing conditions, coupled with the lack of IP protection for the CRL varieties makes it possible for Russia and Kazakhstan to use imported Saskatchewan bred lentil varieties to grow in their lentil industry. When Russia and Kazakhstan grow the CRL varieties it directly competes with Saskatchewan’s production in the world market, eroding the producer surplus of Saskatchewan producers. This thesis estimates the economic benefit to Canadian growers of restricting access to Canadian varieties through a value chain that genetically protects the CRL varieties by exporting only de-hulled red lentils. A dynamic, multi-country, partial equilibrium model is used to estimate the effects de-hulling CRL varieties before export will have on the Canadian lentil industry. This model determines the effects that de-hulling CRL's will have on Canadian lentil producer's welfare by comparing the results from when there is genetic protection (GP) for the CRL varieties before they are export and then there is no genetic protection (noGP) for the CRL varieties. In my thesis, I examine four potential scenarios for the future lentil production in Russia and Kazakhstan over the next twenty years. The four growth scenarios that are examined for Russia and Kazakhstan’s lentil industries range from no convergence to full convergence. No convergence is when Russia and Kazakhstan continue producing lentils with their 2011 lentil hectares until 2034. Full convergence is when both countries converge to the Canadian lentil industry’s ratio of lentil hectares to spring wheat hectares. The empirical model results show that producer surplus gained by Canadian lentil producers are increased when Canadian firms use GP to protect the intellectual property rights (IPR) of new CRL varieties. My results show that lentil prices in the global market will be modestly higher when there is GP for lentils versus when there is noGP for lentils over the next twenty years. The difference in the prices of the noGP case and the GP case gets larger as Russia and Kazakhstan go from no convergence to full convergence. The price impacts of GP in 2034 range from a $0.52 per tonne increase with no convergence to a $5.92 per tonne increase with full convergence. If the net processing margin is not increased, GP will produce a 2012 discounted price of $2.41 billion over the 2014-2034 period, suggesting only modest returns from GP. When all four convergence scenarios are evaluated and weighted by expected probabilities of occurrence, the estimated overall economic impact for Canadian lentil producers from 2014 to 2034 will be $47.12 million in additional producer surplus (PS), which is equal to an increased price of $3.41 per tonne. For this to be feasible the cost of de-hulling the lentils must be profitable to the processors at $3.41 per tonne or less.

No description available.

This thesis analyses the utilization of intellectual property rights (IPRs) by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), their contribution to economic and technological development and policies to be implemented for the SMEs to make more use of the system in order to reach a desired level of growth. Small and medium-scaled enterprises constitute more than 90 % of all firms almost all over the world and a substantial proportion of employment and turnover. This fact bares the necessity for the SMEs to make more use of the intellectual property rights system which is one of the components of innovation and technological growth, in order to achieve the desired level of economic and technological development. This paper discusses the existing and possible contribution of the IPRs obtained by SMEs to economic and technological development and the policies to be implemented in order to encourage intensive utilization of the system by the SMEs. The results of surveys previously carried out both in Turkey and abroad are incorporated within the results of a survey which was organized in the context of this thesis among 86 enterprises in 12 organized industrial zones all over Turkey. The latter survey measures the IPR utilization of the SMEs and the reasons behind under-utilization. Among the firms studied, 60 % of them are R&amp / D performers, 34 % have a distinct R&amp / D department while 56 % of them reported to have developed a new product, process or design. However only one third of these innovative firms have had an IP application and the percentage was even lower with IPR supports / only 2.3 % of the firms applied for IPR supports. The main reason for this underutilization of both IPRs and IPR supports was found as lack of awareness. Policy proposals were tried to be put forward depending on the findings of the survey and raising awareness was defined as the most important measure to be taken.

When the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) was annexed to the Agreement Establishing the World Trade Organisation (WTO) in 1994, it set minimum standards for intellectual property (IP) protection, including protection of patent rights, that must be observed and enforced by all WTO Member States. On the one hand, stringent Intellectual Property protection as seen innovation in the field of science where medical innovation hasled to the creation of live saving vaccines which have reduced prevalence of diseases, ranging from polio to the human Papillomavirus, and invention of antiretroviral medicines which have greatly improved the lives of people living with the Huma Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). On the other hand, the fulfilment of the obligations under TRIPS has generated a lot of controversy especially as they have been seen as the cause of reduced access to essential medicines in developing countries. / Magister Legum - LLM (Mercantile and Labour Law)

La notion de liberté de création est difficile à appréhender. L’étendue même de cette liberté ne fait pas l’objet d’un consensus. Elle est le plus souvent considérée comme un sous-ensemble de la liberté d’expression - restreinte alors à la liberté de création artistique, voire comme un aspect de la liberté d’entreprendre. La liberté de création présente néanmoins des spécificités et est autonome. Elle peut dès lors être protégée en tant que telle par les juges, en amont de la création, comme c’est le cas pour les contrats de commande entre peintres et marchands de tableaux. Dans ce cas, elle est envisagée préalablement à l’octroi de droits. La liberté de création ne peut cependant être considérée sous ce seul angle. En effet, la liberté de création doit être protégée aux différents stades de la création et ses contours sont alors dessinés par la protection accordée à la création elle-même et aux acteurs de la création. Dès lors, la liberté de création est liée aux droits de propriété intellectuelle si l’on considère que ces droits protègent la création. La liberté de création est garantie par l’équilibre entre protection et liberté au sein de ces droits. Au-delà de cet équilibre, la liberté de création peut être confrontée à d’autres libertés et droits fondamentaux. L’ordre public et les bonnes mœurs, la liberté de religion, la vie privée peuvent ainsi limiter la liberté de création. Recourir à la notion de liberté de création peut alors permettre de faire prévaloir l’intérêt du créateur. / The freedom of creation concept is difficult to understand. There is no consensus on the scope of this freedom. It is widely considered as a freedom of expression subset - restricted to the freedom of artistic creation, or even for one of the aspects of freedom of trade and industry. Freedom of creation possesses specific features and is autonomous. Therefore it can be protected, as such, by the judges, before the creation, this is the case for the contracts concluded between painters and art dealers. In this case, this is considered prior to the grant of rights. The freedom of creation cannot be considered only from this perspective. Indeed, freedom of creation needs to be protected at the different stages of creation and the delineation of such freedom are sought in the protection given to the creation and the stakeholders. Therefore, freedom of creation is closely related to intellectual property rights, if one considers that this rights protect creation. Freedom of creation is guaranteed by balance between protection and freedom in this rights. Beyond this balance, freedom of creation may have to be confronted with other fundamental rights and freedoms. Public policy or morality, freedom of religion, right to privacy may thereby limit the freedom of creation. Using the freedom of creation concept can contribute to give precedence to interest of the creator.

In this working paper an examination is made of the logical balance of the deductive argument that commonly appears in various economic texts to justify a system of patents of invention. The examination mentioned should be applied in times of radical technological change in the world to avoid a priori extensions of the legal and institutional protection provided by a system of patents of invention based on past technological realities. The result of the examination shows partial lack of balance when proper account is taken of the financial expenses and coordination efforts by governments as well as of the free distribution of useful knowledge in the fields of biotechnology and the Internet. To refer to that non-legitimate appropriation of public knowledge by the private sector the term ‘epistemo-piracy’ is coined by analogy with ‘bio-piracy’ of common use. The fields of biotechnology and the Internet were chosen because they are preponderant to explain the rise in the number of patents of invention in the world. / En este documento de trabajo se plantea un examen de equilibrio lógico del argumento deductivo utilizado de manera corriente en diversos textos económicos para alentar un sistema de patentes de invención. Asimismo se propone que dicho examen de equilibrio se debe aplicar en épocas de cambio radical en la realidad tecnológica mundial para evitar extensiones apriorísticas de la protección legal e institucional que confiere un sistema de patentes de invención basado en realidades tecnológicas pasadas. El resultado del examen planteado arroja desequilibrio parcial cuando se toman en cuenta los gastos de financiamiento y la coordinación gubernamental, así como la distribución gratuita de los conocimientos útiles obtenidos en los campos de la biotecnología e Internet. Para referirse a esa apropiación indebida de conocimientos de dominio público por parte del sector privado se acuña la palabra epistemo-piratería, por analogía con bio-piratería de uso común. Los campos tecnológicos antes mencionados fueron escogidos porque son preponderantes para explicar el incremento en el número de patentes de invención registrados en el nivel global.

O mercado de flores e plantas ornamentais segue tendências internacionais de moda e decoração e por isso precisa estar em constante inovação. No Brasil, a inovação em plantas foi influenciada pela Lei de Proteção de Cultivares (LPC) que trata do reconhecimento da propriedade intelectual sobre novas variedades vegetais. A lei brasileira contemplou a prática de uso próprio que tem origem na tradição dos agricultores em guardar grãos de uma safra para serem utilizados como sementes na safra seguinte, com o intuito de garantir a segurança alimentar e a viabilidade econômica dos pequenos produtores. No entanto, a floricultura apresenta uma dinâmica diferente das culturas alimentícias, em que não existe a preocupação com a segurança alimentar. Alega-se que em decorrência da maneira como o dispositivo de uso próprio está estabelecido na lei, ele não assegura a proteção eficaz das espécies de plantas propagadas vegetativamente como é o caso da maioria das flores de corte. Este trabalho analisa o impacto da LPC na cadeia de flores de corte brasileira no sentido de contribuir para o entendimento das relações entre o ambiente institucional no qual esta cadeia se insere e o desenvolvimento da mesma. Tal análise baseia-se na abordagem teórica da Nova Economia Institucional, especialmente na linha que considera o papel dos direitos de propriedade e das instituições na organização e desempenho dos mercados. O método de pesquisa contempla entrevistas semi-estruturadas com melhoristas, produtores e distribuidores de flores e também examina os números da proteção de cultivares de três gêneros de flores de corte: rosa, gérbera e alstroemeria. Constatou-se que a implantação da LPC no Brasil significou o reconhecimento da propriedade intelectual em melhoramento vegetal e por isso foi determinante para a entrada de empresas de melhoramento no país. Por sua vez, a introdução por essas empresas, de novas cultivares de flores está modernizando a floricultura brasileira, em termos de diversidade, qualidade e atualização das variedades. No entanto, o dispositivo de uso próprio conforme sugerido pela hipótese 1 impede a concretização ampla dos benefícios que uma legislação de proteção de cultivares pode promover. Por conta da maneira como tal dispositivo está estabelecido, a alocação dos direitos de propriedade não está claramente definida na LPC. Desta forma, criam-se custos de transação em função da necessidade da concepção de estruturas de monitoramento e de contratos, que possibilitem melhor apropriação dos direitos de propriedade pelos melhoristas. Verificou-se que há casos em que os acordos entre as partes têm papel mais importante do que a legislação no disciplinamento do mercado. Os produtores que não cumprem os contratos celebrados com os melhoristas são excluídos do acesso às variedades modernas. A maneira como o uso próprio está estabelecido pode ainda limitar o nível de investimento dos melhoristas no Brasil bem como o atendimento aos pequenos produtores familiares em função da insegurança que o dispositivo confere aos melhoristas. Observou-se também que a apropriação dos direitos de propriedade por meio de um título de proteção nem sempre é viável, por conta do tamanho do mercado de algumas variedades de certos gêneros de flores. Posto de outra forma, a menor procura pela proteção de certas variedades justifica-se pela baixa demanda por essas flores, ao contrário do que havia sido aventado na hipótese 2, de que o uso próprio afetaria as flores de maneira diferente em função de suas diferentes características biológicas. Ou seja, foi demonstrado que para buscar a apropriação dos direitos, na forma de um título, os melhoristas precisam reconhecer valor neste título. As conclusões expostas ao final do estudo mostram a importância do aperfeiçoamento da legislação no sentido de garantir o nível apropriado de proteção às flores propagadas vegetativamente. Esta pesquisa visa oferecer contribuições empíricas para esse propósito. / The flower market usually follows international fashion and design trends, which brings a need for constant innovation. In Brazil, innovation in plants benefited from the Variety Protection Act (Lei de Proteção de Cultivares, LPC), which recognized intellectual property rights over new plant varieties. The Brazilian act observes the farmers privilege which covers the agricultural tradition of farmers saving part of their harvest for the seeding or propagation of the next crop. This custom arose as a means of ensuring future harvests and thus safeguarding the financial situation of small family farms. However, the flower market has a different dynamic from food crops, where there is no concern about food safety. It is alleged that the manner which the farmers privilege provision is settled in the Act does not ensure true protection for asexually propagated species, as is the case of most cut flowers. This work analyzes the impacts of LPC implementation on the Brazilian cut flower chain with the aim to contribute to the understanding of the relations between the institutional environment in which this chain is inserted and its development thereof. Such analysis is based upon the theoretical approach of the New Institutional Economics; it is focused mainly in the role of property rights and institutions in the markets organization and performance. The research methodology adopts semi-structured interviews with flower breeders, flowers growers and flowers wholesalers and also examines three cut flower genera grants of protection: rose, gerbera (Transvaal daisy) and alstroemeria (Peruvian lily). It was found that the Acts implementation in Brazil meant the recognition of intellectual property in plant breeding and therefore it was crucial to the entrance of breeding companies in the country. In turn, the introduction of new plant varieties by these companies, is modernizing the Brazilian flower market in terms of varieties range, quality and availability of up to date varieties. However, as suggested by hypothesis 1, the farmers privilege provision prevent the widely achievement of the benefits that a plant variety protection regime can promote. According to the way this provision is settled, the property rights allocation is not clearly defined at the LPC, in this way, transaction costs are created due to the need of designing monitoring structures and contracts, which provide breeders better property rights appropriation. It was verified that there are cases where agreements between the parties play a more important role than the law in disciplining the market. The growers who do not fulfill the contracts are excluded from access to modern varieties. Besides, the way the farmers privilege is settled, may also limit the breeders investment level in Brazil as well serving small family farmers due to the lack of credibility caused by this provision .It was also noted that the property rights appropriation by means of a protection title is not always feasible concerning the market size of several varieties from certain flowers genera. In other words, the lower demand for the protection of some varieties is explained by the lower demand of the market, refuting what was supposed in the hypothesis 2 that the farmers privilege would affect the flowers in different manners according to its biological different characters. Thus, it was demonstrated that to use a protection title as a tool to seek property rights appropriation, breeders need to recognize value on it. Conclusions demonstrate the importance of legislation improvement in the sense to guarantee the asexually propagated flowers protection appropriated level. This research aims to provide contributions to this propose.

A presente tese de doutorado tem como objetivo a análise da interface entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência no contexto do enquadramento jurídico oferecido pelo Acordo sobre Aspectos de Direitos de Propriedade Intelectual Relacionados ao Comércio Acordo TRIPS da Organização Mundial do Comércio OMC. As disposições relevantes sobre concorrência foram incluídas no Artigo 8.2, que autoriza os Membros a adotarem medidas apropriadas para evitar abusos dos direitos de propriedade intelectual e práticas que restrinjam o comércio e a transferência internacional de tecnologia; no Artigo 40, que dispõe sobre o controle das práticas restritivas em acordos de licenciamento; e no Artigo 31(k), que trata do licenciamento compulsório de patentes para remediar práticas anticoncorrenciais. Essas disposições acabaram sendo incluídas no Acordo TRIPS como resultado de concessões feitas pelos países desenvolvidos aos países em desenvolvimento, em troca do fortalecimento dos padrões mínimos de proteção dos direitos de propriedade intelectual, podendo, portanto, ser consideradas no contexto das flexibilidades constantes no Acordo. No entanto, ainda que essas disposições representem um elemento essencial de equilíbrio, também deixaram importantes questões sem resposta. Além de serem vagas, não fornecem diretrizes adequadas para os países em desenvolvimento implementarem políticas públicas nacionais para coibir práticas restritivas da concorrência relacionadas à exploração de direitos de propriedade intelectual. Assim, enquanto os países mais industrializados possuem autoridades antitruste e tribunais com sólida experiência e recursos necessários para lidar com questões envolvendo a interface entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência, os países em desenvolvimento, em sua maioria, mesmo possuindo leis antitruste nacionais, ainda não adquiriram a experiência e capacitação para tratar de tema tão complexo. Desse modo, a tese deverá abordar as circunstâncias nas quais eventuais abusos de direitos de propriedade intelectual podem restringir a livre concorrência nos mercados, com ênfase nas práticas restritivas em acordos de licenciamento, pools de patentes e licenças cruzadas, bem como nas condutas unilaterais de exclusão relacionadas à exploração desses direitos. Para tanto, propõe-se a interpretação dos dispositivos do TRIPS sobre concorrência a partir da experiência prática das autoridades antitruste e tribunais dos Estados Unidos e da União Europeia. Será também abordada a relação entre propriedade intelectual e direito da concorrência no contexto do ordenamento jurídico-constitucional brasileiro, especialmente a partir da Lei n.º 12.529/2011, nova lei antitruste que altera e define o Sistema Brasileiro de Defesa da Concorrência (SBDC), e de casos recentes julgados pelo Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica (CADE). Ao final, serão analisadas as possíveis abordagens que poderiam ser adotadas pelos países em desenvolvimento na implementação de políticas de concorrência nacionais, que sejam eficazes e compatíveis com o Acordo TRIPS, de modo a contribuir com eventuais discussões futuras sobre o tema em foros internacionais. / The purpose of this thesis is to assess the interface between intellectual property and competition law in light of the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights TRIPS Agreement of the World Trade Organization WTO. The provisions regarding competition were included in Article 8.2, which authorizes the Members to adopt appropriated measures to prevent abuses of intellectual property rights by right holders or practices which restrain trade and international transfer of technology; in the Article 40, which deals with the control of anti-competitive practices in contractual licenses; and Article 31(k), which deals with the compulsory licensing of patents to remedy a practice considered to be anti-competitive. These provisions were included in the TRIPS Agreement as a result of concessions made by the developed countries to the developed countries, in exchange for the strengthening of the minimal standards for the protection of intellectual property rights. Therefore, these provisions can be considered within the context of the flexibilities set forth in the Agreement. However, even if such provisions represent an essential element of balance, they also left important issues unanswered. Besides being vague, they do not provide adequate guidance for emerging countries to implement national public policies to prevent restrictive practices related with the exploitation of intellectual property rights. As a consequence, whereas the most industrialized countries already have antitrust authorities and courts with strong experience and the necessary resources to deal with issues related with the interface between intellectual property and competition law, most of the emerging countries, even those which have national antitrust laws, have not yet acquired experience and technical capacity to deal with such a complex matter. Thus, the thesis should tackle the circumstances in which possible abuses of intellectual property rights might restrain competition, especially with regard to restrictive practices in licensing agreements, cross-licenses and patent pools, and unilateral exclusionary abuses related with the exploitation of such rights. In this sense, it is proposed to interpret the provisions of TRIPS on competition from the practical experience of the antitrust authorities and courts of the United States and the European Union. We should also tackle the relationship between intellectual property and competition laws in the ambit of the Brazilian legal and constitutional system, especially with regard to Law No. 12.529/2011, the new Brazilian antitrust law, which alters and defines the Brazilian Defense of Competition System SBDC (Sistema Brasileiro de Defesa da Concorrência SBCD), as well as with regard to recent cases judged by the Administrative Counsel of Economic Defense CADE (Conselho Administrativo de Defesa Econômica CADE). Finally, it will be examined possible approaches that could be adopted by developing countries in implementing national competition policies, effective and compatible with the TRIPS Agreement, so as to contribute to future discussions on the issue in international fora.