This dissertation presents a literature review of the state-of-practice for the use of IC in concrete mixtures and how structural engineers and construction engineers can adapt IC to their present and future work. Current high early strength concrete mixtures have natural cracking and shrinkage problems due to the high content of cementitious material or their chemical components. Using IC allows for early strength, enhanced durability, reduced shrinkage and a better curing by providing water that can be absorbed by the cement past after the final set. Rapid hydration and high early strength Portland cement and calcium sulfoaluminate (CSA) concretes are commonly used as pavement repair media. The fresh properties (slump, setting time), mechanical properties (elastic modulus, compressive and tensile strength), and volume stability (autogenous shrinkage, drying shrinkage, restrained ring shrinkage, and creep) of rapid repair media were evaluated with and without internal curing with saturated lightweight aggregate. Significant improvements in volume stability were also noted. Results indicate that internal curing can successfully improve volume stability and mitigate restrained shrinkage cracking in rapid repair media without compromising fresh properties or ultimate mechanical strength. Maturity was observed for CSA mixtures and exhibited a correlation with compressive strength development which could be beneficial for rapid repair media on the field.

Mixes with lower water to cement (w/c) ratio and supplementary cementing materials produce strong and durable concrete. The consequence of lowering w/c is an increase in autogenous shrinkage (AS), which contributes to concrete cracking. Internal curing (IC) is shown to mitigate AS, however improper dosing of IC material can negatively affect the concrete properties. The effectiveness of IC material, such as superabsorbent polymer (SAP), depends on the 1) amount of water stored, 2) particle distribution, and 3) ability to deliver water. The objective of this research is to quantify the in-situ efficiency of SAP by investigating its effect on the cement chemical reaction using non-destructive testing methods, specifically isothermal calorimetry and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR). IC was tested with varying quantities of SAP in plain cement paste using white Portland cement and three w/c (0.30, 0.32, 0.35). Overdosing of the SAP material was found to significantly affect the hydration reaction and reduce the efficiency of the material. The initial porosity of the paste influences the ability of IC to provide water. However, the extra porosity provided by SAP needs to be considered when calculating the degree of hydration. Particle agglomeration occurs when the mass of SAP to IC water is greater than 5% and is the main factor causing loss of efficiency. A new geometric model was developed to estimate the SAP distribution within the cement paste. The model employs the SAP absorption determined by NMR and assumes that the SAP particles are spherical, of equal diameter, and individual particles absorb the same amount of pore solution. The results reveal that particle spacing increases with agglomeration and reduces the IC efficiency. A hybrid 1-D finite element transient flow model was developed to reverse engineer the effective diffusion coefficient from the NMR water distribution. The gel solid volume fraction and its impedance to water transfer were accounted for through the cement degree of hydration and tortuosity factor, respectively. Model results reveal that the effective water diffusion coefficient depends on w/c, gel volume fraction, and tortuosity once the cement gel fractions start to connect, i.e., after 20% cement degree of hydration. The diffusion length quantifies the distance water can transfer from the SAP to the cement paste. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

This multi-scale investigation aimed to provide new knowledge and understanding of creep and shrinkage of high performance lightweight concrete (HPLC) by assessing prestress losses in HPLC prestressed members in a large-scale study; by quantifying the effect of the constituent materials and external conditions on creep and shrinkage in a medium-scale study; and by improving the fundamental understanding of creep and shrinkage in a small-scale study. Creep plus shrinkage prestress losses were between two and eight times lower than those estimated for the design standards and approximately 50% of those measured in similar strength normal weight high performance concrete girders. The lower creep and shrinkage exhibited by HPLC was found to be caused by a synergy between the pre-soaked lightweight aggregate and the low water-to-cementitious material ratio matrix. That is, the water contained in the lightweight aggregate contributes to enhance hydration by providing an internal moist curing. The water in the aggregate also contributes to maintain a high internal relative humidity which reduces or eliminates autogenous shrinkage. This higher internal relative humidity also reduces creep by preventing load-induced water migration. Finally, lightweight aggregate exhibits a better elastic compatibility with the paste than normal weight aggregate. This improved elastic matching and the enhanced hydration are believed to reduce peak deformations at the ITZ which further decreases creep and shrinkage.

O avanço da tecnologia do concreto permitiu o desenvolvimento de compósitos cimentícios com elevada resistência mecânica. Contudo, apesar de suas inúmeras vantagens, tais concretos estão mais suscetíveis a ocorrência de fissuração, decorrente do fenômeno da retração. Nas últimas décadas inúmeros esforços estão sendo realizados visando mitigar tal fenômeno, como a realização do procedimento de cura interna, a fim de contribuir para a redução da intensidade deste fenômeno, assim buscando a obtenção de estruturas mais duráveis. Conjuntamente, no contexto do ambiente construído, há uma crescente preocupação relacionada com o desenvolvimento sustentável da indústria da construção civil, uma vez que este setor consome grande quantidade de matérias primas não renováveis, além de gerar uma quantidade significativa de resíduos. Dentro deste contexto, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi o de contribuir para a viabilização do emprego de resíduos de construção e demolição cerâmicos como agentes de cura interna, a fim de reduzir a intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem em concretos, ao longo do tempo. Para tanto, avaliou-se o emprego de agregados cerâmicos miúdos e graúdos em substituição ao agregado natural, na composição dos concretos. Ensaios mecânicos (resistência à compressão e módulo de elasticidade) foram realizados nos compósitos cimentícios estudados, assim como ensaios de retração por secagem livre e restringida, buscando verificar a eficiência do agregado cerâmico como um agente mitigador do fenômeno. Conjuntamente, realizou-se uma análise da microestrutura dos concretos (por microscopia eletrônica de varredura) buscando uma avaliação do transporte entre a matriz cimentícia e o agregado cerâmico. Com os resultados obtidos verificou-se a potencialidade do emprego do agregado cerâmico na composição dos concretos estudados, uma vez que se constatou o não prejuízo das propriedades mecânicas dos compósitos cimentícios estudados, quando ocorreu a substituição do agregado natural pelo agregado cerâmico, bem como observou-se uma redução na intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem e uma diminuição da tendência de fissuração do material. / Advances in concrete technology have allowed the development of cementitious composites with high mechanical strength. However, even with its many advantages these kind of concrete are more susceptible to the occurrence of cracking, resulting from shrinkage phenomenon. In recent decades many efforts were made to mitigate this phenomenon, using internal curing procedures in order to contribute to the reduction of the intensity of this phenomenon, thus seeking to obtain more durable structures. On the other side, in the context of the built environment, there is growing concern related to the sustainable development of the construction industry, since this sector consumes large amount of nonrenewable raw materials, and generate a significant amount of waste. Within this context, the objective of this research was to contribute to the viability of the use of ceramic construction and demolition waste as internal curing agents, in order to reduce the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage in concrete over time. Therefore, we evaluated the use of ceramic fines and coarse aggregates instead of natural aggregate in the composition of concrete residue mixes. Mechanical tests (compressive strength and modulus of elasticity) were performed, as well as shrinkage tests for free and restricted drying, trying to verify the efficiency of ceramic addition as an internal curing agent. Jointly, a microstructure analysis of concrete (scanning electron microscopy) was held, seeking to analysis the transportation between the cement matrix and the ceramic aggregate. With the results obtained the potential of the ceramic aggregate employment as an internal curing agent for concrete studied was confirmed. It has been found not to harm the mechanical properties of cementitious composites studied, and there was a reduction in the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage by drying and a reduction in cracking tendency of the material.

O avanço da tecnologia do concreto permitiu o desenvolvimento de compósitos cimentícios com elevada resistência mecânica. Contudo, apesar de suas inúmeras vantagens, tais concretos estão mais suscetíveis a ocorrência de fissuração, decorrente do fenômeno da retração. Nas últimas décadas inúmeros esforços estão sendo realizados visando mitigar tal fenômeno, como a realização do procedimento de cura interna, a fim de contribuir para a redução da intensidade deste fenômeno, assim buscando a obtenção de estruturas mais duráveis. Conjuntamente, no contexto do ambiente construído, há uma crescente preocupação relacionada com o desenvolvimento sustentável da indústria da construção civil, uma vez que este setor consome grande quantidade de matérias primas não renováveis, além de gerar uma quantidade significativa de resíduos. Dentro deste contexto, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi o de contribuir para a viabilização do emprego de resíduos de construção e demolição cerâmicos como agentes de cura interna, a fim de reduzir a intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem em concretos, ao longo do tempo. Para tanto, avaliou-se o emprego de agregados cerâmicos miúdos e graúdos em substituição ao agregado natural, na composição dos concretos. Ensaios mecânicos (resistência à compressão e módulo de elasticidade) foram realizados nos compósitos cimentícios estudados, assim como ensaios de retração por secagem livre e restringida, buscando verificar a eficiência do agregado cerâmico como um agente mitigador do fenômeno. Conjuntamente, realizou-se uma análise da microestrutura dos concretos (por microscopia eletrônica de varredura) buscando uma avaliação do transporte entre a matriz cimentícia e o agregado cerâmico. Com os resultados obtidos verificou-se a potencialidade do emprego do agregado cerâmico na composição dos concretos estudados, uma vez que se constatou o não prejuízo das propriedades mecânicas dos compósitos cimentícios estudados, quando ocorreu a substituição do agregado natural pelo agregado cerâmico, bem como observou-se uma redução na intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem e uma diminuição da tendência de fissuração do material. / Advances in concrete technology have allowed the development of cementitious composites with high mechanical strength. However, even with its many advantages these kind of concrete are more susceptible to the occurrence of cracking, resulting from shrinkage phenomenon. In recent decades many efforts were made to mitigate this phenomenon, using internal curing procedures in order to contribute to the reduction of the intensity of this phenomenon, thus seeking to obtain more durable structures. On the other side, in the context of the built environment, there is growing concern related to the sustainable development of the construction industry, since this sector consumes large amount of nonrenewable raw materials, and generate a significant amount of waste. Within this context, the objective of this research was to contribute to the viability of the use of ceramic construction and demolition waste as internal curing agents, in order to reduce the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage in concrete over time. Therefore, we evaluated the use of ceramic fines and coarse aggregates instead of natural aggregate in the composition of concrete residue mixes. Mechanical tests (compressive strength and modulus of elasticity) were performed, as well as shrinkage tests for free and restricted drying, trying to verify the efficiency of ceramic addition as an internal curing agent. Jointly, a microstructure analysis of concrete (scanning electron microscopy) was held, seeking to analysis the transportation between the cement matrix and the ceramic aggregate. With the results obtained the potential of the ceramic aggregate employment as an internal curing agent for concrete studied was confirmed. It has been found not to harm the mechanical properties of cementitious composites studied, and there was a reduction in the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage by drying and a reduction in cracking tendency of the material.

O avanço da tecnologia do concreto permitiu o desenvolvimento de compósitos cimentícios com elevada resistência mecânica. Contudo, apesar de suas inúmeras vantagens, tais concretos estão mais suscetíveis a ocorrência de fissuração, decorrente do fenômeno da retração. Nas últimas décadas inúmeros esforços estão sendo realizados visando mitigar tal fenômeno, como a realização do procedimento de cura interna, a fim de contribuir para a redução da intensidade deste fenômeno, assim buscando a obtenção de estruturas mais duráveis. Conjuntamente, no contexto do ambiente construído, há uma crescente preocupação relacionada com o desenvolvimento sustentável da indústria da construção civil, uma vez que este setor consome grande quantidade de matérias primas não renováveis, além de gerar uma quantidade significativa de resíduos. Dentro deste contexto, o objetivo desta pesquisa foi o de contribuir para a viabilização do emprego de resíduos de construção e demolição cerâmicos como agentes de cura interna, a fim de reduzir a intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem em concretos, ao longo do tempo. Para tanto, avaliou-se o emprego de agregados cerâmicos miúdos e graúdos em substituição ao agregado natural, na composição dos concretos. Ensaios mecânicos (resistência à compressão e módulo de elasticidade) foram realizados nos compósitos cimentícios estudados, assim como ensaios de retração por secagem livre e restringida, buscando verificar a eficiência do agregado cerâmico como um agente mitigador do fenômeno. Conjuntamente, realizou-se uma análise da microestrutura dos concretos (por microscopia eletrônica de varredura) buscando uma avaliação do transporte entre a matriz cimentícia e o agregado cerâmico. Com os resultados obtidos verificou-se a potencialidade do emprego do agregado cerâmico na composição dos concretos estudados, uma vez que se constatou o não prejuízo das propriedades mecânicas dos compósitos cimentícios estudados, quando ocorreu a substituição do agregado natural pelo agregado cerâmico, bem como observou-se uma redução na intensidade do fenômeno da retração por secagem e uma diminuição da tendência de fissuração do material. / Advances in concrete technology have allowed the development of cementitious composites with high mechanical strength. However, even with its many advantages these kind of concrete are more susceptible to the occurrence of cracking, resulting from shrinkage phenomenon. In recent decades many efforts were made to mitigate this phenomenon, using internal curing procedures in order to contribute to the reduction of the intensity of this phenomenon, thus seeking to obtain more durable structures. On the other side, in the context of the built environment, there is growing concern related to the sustainable development of the construction industry, since this sector consumes large amount of nonrenewable raw materials, and generate a significant amount of waste. Within this context, the objective of this research was to contribute to the viability of the use of ceramic construction and demolition waste as internal curing agents, in order to reduce the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage in concrete over time. Therefore, we evaluated the use of ceramic fines and coarse aggregates instead of natural aggregate in the composition of concrete residue mixes. Mechanical tests (compressive strength and modulus of elasticity) were performed, as well as shrinkage tests for free and restricted drying, trying to verify the efficiency of ceramic addition as an internal curing agent. Jointly, a microstructure analysis of concrete (scanning electron microscopy) was held, seeking to analysis the transportation between the cement matrix and the ceramic aggregate. With the results obtained the potential of the ceramic aggregate employment as an internal curing agent for concrete studied was confirmed. It has been found not to harm the mechanical properties of cementitious composites studied, and there was a reduction in the intensity of the phenomenon of shrinkage by drying and a reduction in cracking tendency of the material.

Submitted by Silvana Teresinha Dornelles Studzinski (sstudzinski) on 2017-02-09T14:38:55Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Angélica Koppe_.pdf: 2328574 bytes, checksum: d353be1d4946babddf72b551a2536afa (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-02-09T14:38:55Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Angélica Koppe_.pdf: 2328574 bytes, checksum: d353be1d4946babddf72b551a2536afa (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-12-21 / Plásticos Brandt Ltda / A falta de cura adequada e, consequentemente, os problemas de má hidratação do cimento e manifestações patológicas, como retração e fissuras, estão entre os principais responsáveis pela redução da durabilidade de estruturas de concreto. Aliados ao aumento da velocidade de execução das obras, esses tendem a piorar uma vez que há falhas recorrentes nas atividades de pós-concretagem. A cura, com o objetivo de manter a umidade necessária para a correta hidratação do cimento e minimização da retração, vem evoluindo para um novo campo de pesquisa, a técnica da cura interna. Essa se baseia na incorporação, a uma matriz cimentícia, de materiais capazes de reter água e liberá-la de forma gradativa ao logo do período de cura. Seu estudo tem sido voltado basicamente para o uso em concretos de alto desempenho, contudo, concretos convencionais também são frequentemente negligenciados na prática de cura úmida e tendem a evoluir para essa tecnologia. Entre os materiais mais estudados, os polímeros superabsorventes (PSA) têm apresentado desempenho satisfatório como agentes de cura interna, apresentando-se como reservatórios internos de água dispersos na matriz. Esses polímeros foram apresentados à indústria da construção civil em 2001, já na prática de cura interna, com o intuito de melhorar a durabilidade das estruturas, diminuir a retração e melhorar a hidratação das partículas de cimento, agindo de dentro para fora. Mesmo com a desvantagem de gerar poros internos, seu uso apresenta vantagens quanto ao efeito plastificante, com capacidade de reduzir a relação a/c e a retração do concreto. Dentre os estudos publicados até o momento, entretanto, não se tem registros do uso de PSA de origem residual. Sendo assim, o presente estudo objetiva avaliar a viabilidade de uso de PSA residual (FCPSA), composto de fibra celulósica e PSA, proveniente de empresas de produtos de higiene, em matrizes cimentícias como agente de cura interna, buscando melhores características microestruturais. Foram realizadas análises de absorção de água e efeito plastificante do FCPSA, de resistência mecânica e retração ao longo do tempo em argamassas curadas a 100%, 60% e 30% de umidade relativa (UR), e análises de fissuração e retração inicial, até a idade de 24h, em matrizes com cimentos Portland CP II-F 40 e CP IV 32. Os resultados mostram que o FCPSA melhora a trabalhabilidade das argamassas em estado fresco, quando adicionado pré-saturado, possibilitando uma redução da relação a/c em ambos os tipos de cimento. No estado endurecido, o FCSA (a) atua principalmente na minimização de fissuração inicial, podendo reduzir a área fissurada em até 22,5% para o cimento CP II-F e 76,2% para o CP IV 32; (b) atua na redução de retração em condições de temperatura elevada e baixa umidade relativa e (c) apresenta resistências à compressão similares às argamassas referência, com dosagem calculada, para ambos os cimentos. / The lack of adequate curing conditions, and related problems such as poor hydration, shrinkage and cracking, are among the main reasons for the reduction in durability of reinforced concrete structures. Considering the increasingly tight schedules practiced in current building construction projects, these reasons tend to worsen once there are recurring failures in the post-concrete placement and finishing activities. Concrete curing, which aims to keep adequate moisture conditions for the proper hydration of cement and to minimize shrinkage and cracking, has been evolving into a new field of research: the practice of internal curing. This is based on the incorporation, into a cement matrix, of materials able to retain water and release it in a gradual manner during the curing period. Most internal curing studies conducted so far have focused primarily on high performance concretes; however, conventional concretes are often neglected in the practice of proper wet curing and also tend to evolve and apply this technology. Among the most studied materials in this context, superabsorbent polymers (SAP) have presented satisfactory performance as an internal curing agent, presenting themselves as internal water reservoirs dispersed throughout the matrix. They were presented to the construction industry in 2001, as internal curing agents, employed to improve the durability of the structures, reduce shrinkage and promote better hydration of the cement particles. Even with the disadvantage of generating internal voids, its use presents advantages due to its plasticizing effect (when pre-saturated), with a capacity to reduce w/c ratio and shrinkage. Among the studies published so far, there are no records of the use of residual SAP. The objective of this study is to evaluate the technical feasibility of using residual SAP (FCSAP), composed of cellulose fiber and SAP, from hygiene products companies, in conventional cement matrices as an internal curing agent. The RSAP absorption and plasticizing effects were evaluated, as well as mechanical strength and shrinkage in mortars cured at 100%, 60% and 30% relative humidity (RH), in addition to analysis of cracking and plastic shrinkage up to 24h, for two types of cements (CP II-F and CP IV). Results show that the use of RSAP as an internal curing agent improves the workability of fresh mortars when added pre-saturated, thus allowing a reduction of w/c ratio for a given workability. In the hardened state: (a) it works mainly in the minimization of initial cracking, being able to reduce the cracked area by up to 22.5% for CP II-F and 76.18% for CP IV; (b) acts in the reduction of shrinkage in high temperature and low relative humidity conditions; and (c) presents similar compressive strengths to the control mortars, when mixed in proper amounts, for both types of cement tested.

<p>Superabsorbent polymer (SAP) hydrogel particles have been used as internal curing agents in concrete mixes as they are capable of absorbing and subsequently releasing large amounts of water. This reduces autogenous shrinkage during early stages of hydration. The size, shape, and composition of the hydrogel particles can be controlled during the synthesis, hence providing the opportunity to custom synthesize these internal curing agents to elicit desired structure-property relationships. Utilization of optimized dosage and formulation of SAP has the potential to improve the microstructure, durability, and strength of internally cured concrete. </p> <p>The first study focuses on the synthesis and application of novel composite hydrogel particles as internal curing agents in cementitious mixes. Composite polyacrylamide hydrogel particles containing two different amorphous silica–either nanosilica or silica fume–were used to investigate whether the internal curing performance of hydrogel particles could be enhanced. The dosage and type of silica, crosslinker amount were varied to identify the composite polyacrylamide hydrogel particle composition that provides optimum benefits to internally cured cementitious systems. The synthesized hydrogels were characterized by means of absorption capacity tests, compositional and size analysis. The beneficial impacts of the addition of composite hydrogels on cement paste microstructure are highlighted, including the preferential formation of cement hydration products (such as portlandite) within the hydrogel-induced voids that appeared to be influenced by the composition of the hydrogel particles. The interrelationship between extent of hydration, size of hydrogel voids, and void-filling with hydration products was found to strongly influence mechanical strength and is thus an important structure-property relationship to consider when selecting hydrogels for internal curing purposes. This study informs the design of composite hydrogel particles to optimize performance in cementitious mixes. Additionally, it provides a novel means of incorporating other commonly used admixtures in concrete without facing common challenges related to dispersion and health hazards.</p> <p>The second study focuses on the utilization of two retarding admixture-citric acid and sucrose-to custom synthesize composite polyacrylamides to investigate whether the composite hydrogels could delay hydration of cement paste. Isothermal calorimetry analysis results showed that composite sucrose-containing polyacrylamide hydrogel particles were successfully able to retard main hydration peak of cement paste, beyond the retardation capabilities of the pure polyacrylamide hydrogels. Thus, this study provides avenues of exploring the utilization of common admixtures to formulate novel composite hydrogels that imparts specific properties to cementitious systems.</p> <p>In another study, SAP formulated by admixture industries were used to investigate the feasibility of internal curing of bridge decks and pavement patches with SAP particles. The microstructure and early age hydration properties of SAP-cured cementitious systems were studied. Mitigation of microcracks in the matrix, along with portlandite growth in SAP voids, were observed in SAP-cured mortars. Presence of SAP also mitigated autogenous shrinkage and improved early age hydration as observed by isothermal calorimetry analysis. This thesis highlights some of the beneficial impacts of SAP-cured cementitious systems, and the potential to harness those benefits in large-scale applications of SAP-cured concrete.</p> <br>

The objectives of this research were to 1) monitor in-situ moisture and diffusivity for both conventional concrete and concrete containing pre-wetted lightweight fine aggregate (LWFA), 2) compare deck performance in terms of early-age cracking, compressive strength, and chloride ingress, and 3) compare concrete properties in terms of compressive strength, chloride permeability, elastic modulus, and water content in the laboratory using cylinders cast in the field at the time of deck construction. The research involved field and laboratory evaluations of four newly constructed bridge decks located in northern Utah, two constructed using conventional concrete and two constructed using pre-wetted LWFA to promote internal curing. Data from sensors embedded in the concrete decks indicate that the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was consistently 1.5 to 4 percentage points higher than the moisture content of the conventional concrete for the first 6 months following deck construction. By 1 year, however, the internally cured concrete showed little difference in moisture content compared to the conventional concrete. While the internally cured concrete decks had a higher average moisture content, the electrical conductivity values were not consistently higher than those measured on the conventional concrete decks during the first approximately 8 to 10 months. However, after 8 to 10 months, both internally cured concrete decks exhibited higher electrical conductivity values than those measured on the conventional concrete decks. Laboratory compressive strength data indicate that, for the first 6 months following deck construction, the two concrete mixtures exhibited very similar strength gain characteristics. However, at 1 year, the conventional concrete was stronger by an average of 12.9 percent, or nearly 900 psi, than the internally cured concrete. In rapid chloride permeability testing, the internally cured concrete consistently passed between 13.1 and 17.5 percent less current than that passed by the conventional concrete. Laboratory free-free resonant testing at 1 year showed that the modulus of the internally cured concrete was 3.9 percent lower, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. For the tested specimens, the moisture content of the internally cured concrete was 0.5 percentage points higher, on average, than that of the conventional concrete. In the field, Schmidt rebound hammer testing showed that the internally cured concrete was neither consistently stronger nor weaker than the conventional concrete. On average, the internally cured concrete exhibited higher chloride concentrations than the conventional concrete. On average, the conventional concrete bridge decks had 4.6, 21.5, and 2.8 times more cracking than the internally cured concrete decks at 5 months, 8 months, and 1 year, respectively. At 1 year, very distinctive reflection cracks from the joints between the underlying pre-cast half-deck panels were observed on all of the decks.

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world. However, there is a need to develop sustainable concrete mixtures considering that cement production accounts for 5-8% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. Low-clinker cementitious materials offer enormous CO2 reduction potential due to their lower embodied energy, lowered calcination temperatures, low clinker content, and the reduced content of limestone in the clinker feed. This study aims to implement a multiscale experimental approach to design low-clinker systems with different formulations to satisfy/surpass performance requirements for building/infrastructure applications in different geographic regions. Cementitious systems with low clinker content can offer a multitude of advantages, with different formulations that result in microstructures that display lower intrinsic permeability and varying phase assemblages. In this study, internal curing was implemented to improve the microstructure of low-clinker materials by extending the hydration/pozzolanic reactions. Internal curing typically consists of partially replacing the fine aggregates with an equivalent volume of pre-wetted fine lightweight aggregates (FLWA). The FLWA serves as the internal water reservoir for curing. This approach enhances the durability of concrete. Additionally, the application of internal curing reduces the duration of external curing. This may provide one option to address the construction schedule. Additionally, this study utilizes a suite of experimental methods to examine carbonation phenomena in low-clinker systems to discover the governing mechanisms and provide a novel method to limit the carbonation depth in low-clinker cementitious materials. The findings of this study can open opportunities to design highly sustainable cementitious systems with superior performance against carbonation. Carbonation-induced corrosion causes extensive damage to concrete infrastructure in the US every year. / Civil Engineering