Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T15:54:59Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 LiliaSL_DISSERT.pdf: 1205746 bytes, checksum: 2d6f54937aea54d66af1807b0fdb64df (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-13 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / The World Trade Organization (WTO) was established in 1994 as a result of the Uruguay Round, and has as its principal aim advocate for the maintenance of free trade between nations. The preamble of its Constitutive Agreement specifically cites as an institution the goal of achieving sustainable development and the pursuit of protecting and preserving the environment, bringing into the sphere of world trade the idea that concern for the environmental cause is not restricted only the group of environmentalists, but rather has entered the economic landscape in a way not only ideological, but also pragmatic. The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 1947, part of the GATT 1994, contains a device that allows the adoption of trade restrictive measures, provided that such measures aimed at protecting the environment - Article XX. The Settlement Body (DSB) is part of the WTO and acts in dissolving disputes between the countries motivated by trade. It examines two cases where countries have imposed restrictive trade measures with environmental justification. The first case was closed in 1996, with award of damages given to Brazil, on the breakdown of U.S. environmental legislation imposed on imported gasoline from Brazil - and the second, begun in 2005 and closed in 2007, coming out victorious again Brazil is on the import ban on retreaded tires to Brazil. The objective is to answer the question: how the environment is treated in the midst of trade discussions - which is aimed at its protection or its use with economic objectives in disguise? For the preparation of this work, extensive documentary research was undertaken with the virtual site of the WTO to review the entire production of legal cases and subsequent analysis of the key issue for the work, and literature of authors who have studied the tense relationship between trade international environment. The first case, it could be seen that the political movement performed by the U.S. with the aim of achieving acceptable standards of air quality was an institutional effort to ensure the quality of air, and thus would be inappropriate to say that the regulation of gasoline was merely a disguised trade barrier.However, a careful analysis of the implementation and operation of gasoline regulation may reveal intentions disguised trade and U.S. environmental argument did not hold. The weight of this environment was relegated, since there were clearly outside interests to the environmental cause. The second case, it was realized that, despite clear attempts by the EC to promote ecological dumping, send when brought to Brazil, supposedly a country with weaker environmental structure on surveillance, a residue that, pursuant to internal policies, as could not be sent to their own landfills, the Brazilian discourse remained focused on the environmental cause, and this sort there was the existence of disguised trade barriers, but of importance, at least a priori, the discussion of foreign forces on the environment environment because there is no way to legally justify the reversal of the total understanding of the first judging body, the sight of all the arguments presented by Brazil and the nonsubmission of new facts upon appeal. Still, quite heartening to reflect on the role of trade liberalization on the environment in general, because, while they do not reach a definitive conclusion will reveal positions in both directions, both for and against, the that only adds to the discussions and makes this a very fertile topic for future research / A Organiza??o Mundial do Com?rcio (OMC) foi criada em 1994, como resultado da Rodada Uruguai, e tem como escopo principal propugnar pela manuten??o do livre-com?rcio entre as na??es. O pre?mbulo do seu Acordo Constitutivo cita especificamente como sendo um objetivo da institui??o o alcance de um desenvolvimento sustent?vel e a busca pela prote??o e preserva??o do meio ambiente, trazendo para a esfera do com?rcio mundial a ideia de que a preocupa??o com a causa ambiental n?o est? restrita apenas ao grupo dos ambientalistas, mas, pelo contr?rio j? adentrou o cen?rio econ?mico de uma forma n?o s? ideol?gica, por?m tamb?m pragm?tica. O Acordo Geral de Tarifas e Com?rcio (GATT) de 1947, que integra o GATT de 1994, cont?m um dispositivo que permite a ado??o de medidas restritivas ao com?rcio, desde que tais medidas visem a prote??o do meio ambiente Artigo XX. O ?rg?o de Solu??o de Controv?rsias (OSC) integra a OMC e atua na dissolu??o de controv?rsias entre os pa?ses motivadas por quest?es comerciais. Analisam-se dois casos em que pa?ses impuseram medidas comerciais restritivas com justificativa ambiental. O primeiro caso foi encerrado em 1996, com ganho de causa dado ao Brasil, relativo ? discrimina??o da legisla??o ambiental estadunidense imposta ? gasolina importada do Brasil e o segundo, iniciado em 2005 e encerrado em 2007, saindo novamente o Brasil vitorioso, ? referente ? proibi??o da importa??o de pneus reformados para o Brasil. Objetiva-se responder ? pergunta: como o meio ambiente ? tratado em meio a discuss?es comerciais o que se visa ? a sua prote??o ou a sua utiliza??o com objetivos econ?micos disfar?ados? Para a confec??o deste trabalho, foi empreendida ampla pesquisa documental junto ao s?tio virtual da OMC para avalia??o de toda a produ??o jur?dica dos casos e posterior an?lise da quest?o-chave para o trabalho, al?m de pesquisa bibliogr?fica de autores que estudam a tensa rela??o entre com?rcio internacional e meio ambiente. Quanto ao primeiro caso, p?de-se perceber que a movimenta??o pol?tica realizada pelos EUA com o fito de alcan?ar padr?es aceit?veis de qualidade do ar foi um esfor?o institucional para assegurar a qualidade do ar atmosf?rico, e, assim, seria inapropriado afirmar que o regulamento da gasolina constituiu meramente um entrave comercial disfar?ado. Por?m, uma an?lise cuidadosa da implementa??o e do funcionamento do regulamento da gasolina pode evidenciar inten??es comerciais disfar?adas e o argumento ambiental dos EUA n?o se sustentou. O peso do meio ambiente neste foi relegado, posto que visivelmente existiam interesses estranhos ? causa ambiental. Quanto ao segundo caso, percebeu-se que, apesar das claras tentativas das CE de promover o dumping ecol?gico, quando intentaram enviar para o Brasil, supostamente um pa?s com estrutura fiscalizat?ria ambiental mais d?bil, um res?duo que, por for?a de diretivas internas, j? n?o podia ser enviado para seus pr?prios aterros, o discurso brasileiro permaneceu centrado na causa ambiental, e desta sorte n?o se verificou a exist?ncia de barreiras comerciais disfar?adas, e sim, de preponder?ncia, pelo menos a priori, de for?as estranhas ? discuss?o sobre o meio ambiente, pois que n?o h? como se justificar juridicamente a revers?o total do entendimento do primeiro ?rg?o julgador, ? vista de todos os argumentos apresentados pelo Brasil e da n?o apresenta??o de fatos novos quando da apela??o. Ainda, bastante alvissareira a reflex?o sobre o papel da liberaliza??o comercial sobre o meio ambiente de forma geral, pois que, ao passo em que n?o se chega a uma conclus?o definitiva, evidenciamse posi??es nos dois sentidos, tanto a favor quanto contra, o que s? enriquece as discuss?es e torna este um tema bastante f?rtil para futuras pesquisas

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Le sujet de cette thèse porte sur l’analyse des liens entre la politique étrangère et le commerce international, hormis un chapitre qui est de nature plus méthodologique. Dans le chapitre 1, j’étudie dans quelle mesure les intérêts géopolitiques sont une motivation essentielle pour la formation d’accords d’intégration économique. Les grands pays négocient et signent systématiquement des accords avec des pays plus petits qui offrent plus d’avantages en termes politiques qu’en termes économiques. Le chapitre 2 propose une analyse empirique sur les effets des sanctions sur les pays sanctionnant, et plus particulièrement sur leurs exportations. Dans ce travail en collaboration avec Matthieu Crozet, nous examinons l’impact global du régime de sanctions contre la Fédération de Russie sur les flux d’exportation des pays occidentaux, et l’impact micro sur les entreprises exportatrices françaises. Le chapitre 3 centre son analyse sur l’étude du mécanisme par lequel les relations politiques entre pays influent leurs flux commerciaux. Conjointement avec Elsa Leromain, nous montrons comment les pays adaptent leur mode d’approvisionnement au climat politique avec leur partenaire commercial. Enfin, dans le chapitre 4, j’explore une question méthodologique en établissant la façon dont les coûts commerciaux devraient être agrégés des niveaux inférieurs d’agrégation géographique au plus élevés en prenant l’exemple de la définition des distances moyennes entre pays en utilisant l’imagerie satellite sur l’émission de lumière nocturne pour mesurer l’activité économique locale. / The subject of this doctoral thesis revolves around the analysis of the links between foreign policy and international trade, along with one chapter that is of more methodological nature. In chapter1 I show how geopolitical interests are a key motivation for economic integration agreements. Big countries systematically negotiate and sign these agreements with smaller countries that offer political benefits at the expense of economic ones. Chapter 2 provides an empirical analysis into the effect of sanctions on sanctioning countries—their exports in particular. In this joint work with Matthieu Crozet, we study the macro-impact of the sanctions regime against the Russian Federation on export flows from Western countries and the micro-impact on French exporting firms. Chapter 3 takes a closer look at the mechanism through which political relations between countries impact their trade flows. A collaboration with Elsa Leromain, we show how countries adjust their input sourcing pattern to the political climate with the respective trading partner. Finally, in chapter 4 I explore the methodological issue of how trade costs should be aggregated from lower levels of geographic aggregation to higher ones and I compute theory-consistent country to country distances using nighttime satellite imagery for information on the location of economic activity.

Cette thèse aborde différents sujets ayant trait aux liens entre l’économie réelle et l’économie financière au sein de l’économie internationale. Trois essais abordent ces liens selon différentes perspectives aussi bien micro que macro-économiques. Le premier chapitre, co-écrit avec Jean-Charles Bricongne et Sebastian Franco-Bedoya, évalue l’arbitrage proximité-concentration avec des entreprises multi-produits afin d’identifier le type de lien (complémentarité ou substituabilité) entre les exportations et les IDE. Tandis que les modèles d’IDE horizontal prédisent qu’IDE et exportations se substituent du fait de l’arbitrage proximité-concentration, une majorité d’études empiriques met en évidence leur complémentarité. [...]Le deuxième chapitre examine empiriquement le rôle du développement financier dans l’évolution du produit marginal du capital (MPK) dans 50 pays et sa relation avec leurs besoins de finance externe, en lien avec leur production manufacturière durant la période 1995-2008. En se fondant sur des données sectorielles au niveau des pays, les résultats de ce chapitre montrent que la spécialisation dans des secteurs intensifs en finance externe contribue de manière positive au MPK des pays développés et de manière négative dans les pays en développement. Cette relation devient légèrement positive uniquement lorsque le système financier est suffisamment développé dans ces derniers ; ces pays étant généralement caractérisés par des systèmes financiers largement moins efficaces en comparaison avec des pays développés. [...] Le troisième chapitre, co-écrit avec Jean-Charles Bricongne et Fabrizio Coricelli étudie la transmission des chocs mondiaux pendant la Grande Récession et son impact sur l’emploi français. En particulier, nous examinons le rôle du crédit commercial (ou inter-entreprises) dans la propagation des chocs transfrontaliers. En se fondant sur un sous-échantillon des entreprises importatrices économiquement actives sur la période 2004-2009, nos résultats suggèrent que des entreprises ayant de forts liens commerciaux avant la crise avec les pays qui ont le mieux résisté aux chocs économiques, ont eu une meilleure performance au niveau de la croissance de l’emploi entre 2008 et 2009. Cet effet varie considérablement en fonction de l’intensité du crédit commercial. Une forte dépendance au crédit commercial avant la crise s’est traduite par une vulnérabilité plus forte aux chocs imprévus pour les entreprises, pour lesquelles l’impact négatif de la crise a été exacerbé. Cet effet a été intensifié pour les entreprises ayant des liens commerciaux importants avec les pays les plus affectés par des chocs. A l’inverse, l’effet négatif de la crise a été atténué lorsque les relations commerciales étaient plus fortes avec des pays où les chocs ont été les moins sévères. Suggérant par conséquent, que le crédit commercial a été une source alternative de financement pour les entreprises françaises importatrices lors de la crise, du moment où leurs fournisseurs internationaux leur ont permis de surmonter les contraintes financières liées aux chocs imprévus en leur accordant un délai de paiement plus important. Les résultats de cette analyse contribuent au débat dans la littérature sur le rôle du financement du commerce international dans le ralentissement de l’activité économique réelle à travers les frontières. / Two particular concerns in international economics motivate this research: I. How are real and financial activities related to each other in a globalized economy? II. What role do financial frictions play in this relationship ? Three essays look at these questions from different perspectives. The first chapter, in collaboration with Jean-Charles Bricongne and SebastianFranco-Bedoya, revises the old question on the relation between FDI and exports on French firms, where theory seems to be at odds with empirical findings. Most FDI and most trade take place between rich markets, where the horizontal investment type is expected to happen. In this sense, empirical studies have almost invariably found a complementarity relation while standard Horizontal FDI models predict substitutability between FDI and exports given the proximity-concentration trade-off. [...]The second chapter empirically examines how external financial needs measured at the sector level- and financial development at the country level interact to shape the aggregate marginal product of capital of a country (MPK) and its foreign direct investment inflows (FDI). First, using new available data we construct annual aggregate MPK for 50 developing and developed countries during 1995-2008; we use industry-level data to construct an annual country-level measure of external financial dependence and assess its effects on MPK conditional on the level of financial development. Our findings imply that financial development seems to be a necessary condition -and certainly not a sufficient one- in order for production in financially dependent sectors to positively affect aggregate MPK in developing countries. Second, using bilateral FDI inflows in developing countries between 2001 and 2010, we analyze how external financial dependence and financial development determine FDI in flows in developing countries. [...]The third chapter, joint research with Jean-Charles Bricongne and Fabrizio Coricelli, studies the transmission of global shocks during the Great Recession and its impact on French employment. Particularly, we explore the role of trade credit in the propagation of cross-border shocks. Using a sub-sample of importing enterprises that were active over 2004-2009,our findings imply that strong pre-crisis sourcing ties with countries that were more resilient to the global crisis, translated into better performance in terms of employment growth over 2008-2009. This effect dramatically varies with trade credit intensity. Strongly relying on trade credit made firms more vulnerable to unanticipated shocks, for which the adverse impact of the crisis was exacerbated. This effect intensified among firms with important sourcing ties with severely shocked countries. While the negative effect of the crisis was mitigated when sourcing relations with countries subject to milder shocks were stronger. Supporting, therefore, the hypothesis that trade credit was an alternative source of financing for enterprises during the crisis, where implicitly borrowing from suppliers helped importers overcoming financial constraints. Our contribution to the literature adds to the debate on the role of trade finance in explaining the real economic downturn across borders.

This thesis examines whether EU and EMU memberships appeared to protect the member countries’ trade, measured in exports, during the 2008 global financial crisis. The panel data analysis is based on a country sample of 40 OECD and EU countries during the period from 2000 to 2016. By employing a pooled Ordinary Least Squared (OLS) regression and an augmented gravity model, we investigate how the EU and EMU countries’ trade was impacted in comparison to the average of the OECD countries’ trade during the crisis. The results indicate that being a member of the EU or the currency union did not pose additional protection, as the member countries’ trade seemed to be more negatively impacted by the crisis than the average trade in the OECD countries.

Essa dissertação tem como objetivo expor a teoria clássico-marxista das vantagens absolutas nas trocas internacionais. Como ponto de partida está o tratamento de Marx a respeito da concorrência entre capitais, dos monopólios, da formação dos preços e dos mecanismos de transferência de valor. A exposição da teoria aqui tratada será contraposta com algumas abordagens marxistas, que apresentam uma compreensão distinta a respeito do funcionamento das trocas de mercadorias e dos fluxos de capitais na esfera internacional. Outra questão central do presente trabalho é o entendimento dado pela teoria clássico-marxista das vantagens absolutas a respeito do processo de transferência de valor em nível global e o desenvolvimento desigual. / This dissertation aims to expose the classical Marxist theory of absolute advantage in international trade. As a starting point is the treatment of Marx about the competition between capitals, monopolies, price formation and mechanisms of value transfer. The exposition of the theory discussed here is contrasted with some Marxist approaches, which have a distinct understanding about the functioning of trade in goods and capital flows in the international sphere. Another central issue of this work is the understanding given by the classical Marxist theory of absolute advantages regarding the transfer value on a global level and uneven development process.

In the past two decades, as regional free trade agreements prevailed between states and governments, there is an imperative need for the concerned trade control authorities to minimise non-tariff trade barriers. Trade facilitation policy becomes one of the essential tools to enhance the competitive strength of a state in the global market. As the common yardstick adopted to assess policy effectiveness, the global trade efficiency indicators seem to reflect that state-level trade facilitation policies may not be generating the expected results. Not only the validity of such indicators have been challenged by some scholars, their application in port-level studies are also questionable. This project develops an evaluation framework that consists of a qualitative and a quantitative assessment tool to evaluate port-based trade facilitation policies. The qualitative analytical instrument examines how trade facilitation measures affect port-based supply chain. The quantitative survey tool measures the extent of these policies may impact on the supply chain activities of port-related firm, infrastructure, and institutional stakeholders. The evaluation framework is applied to investigate the effects of trade facilitation policies on hub ports of the Pearl River Delta (PRD) region. Such framework not only provides an instrument to measure policy impact, but also illustrates how a trade facilitation programme may affect the competitiveness of port supply chain. The qualitative tool by adopting multiple supply chain perspectives, contributes a consistent and comprehensive assessment method for trade facilitation studies to extend the research scope to port level. The quantitative instrument provides a mechanism that could facilitate an accurate measurement of the trade facilitation policy impacts not only in a single port but also in a networked ports' environment.

This work comprehensively reviews the international trade in sea horses, particularly the Hippocampus genus, from 1997 to 2012. The genus was added to the Appendices II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (thereinafter as the CITES) in 2002, came into force in 2004. Before the addition, the genus was entered into the appendix D for the non-CITES species whose import is monitored by the EU. The CITES Trade Database kept by the UNEP - WCMC Secretariat was used as the source of data about the trade. The frequency of the trade in sea horses tended to be increasing with a moderate decrease in 2009. The Hippocampus species was traded in the following forms: live, bodies, derivatives, specimens, medicine, carvings, eggs live, extracts, fingerlings, powder, skeletons, skin pieces, soup, trophies and other unspecified forms. The living specimens traded: (1) specimens taken from the wild., (2) animals bred in captivity as well as parts and derivatives, (3) Animals born in captivity (F1 or subsequent generations) that do not fulfil the definition of 'bred in captivity', as well as parts and derivatives thereof, (4) specimens of animals reared in a controlled environment, taken as eggs or juveniles from the wild, where they would otherwise have had a very low probability of surviving to adulthood, (5) confiscated or seized specimens, (6) pre- Convention specimens. The trades purposes were: (1) commercial, (2) personal, (3) scientific, (4) zoo (aquarium) breeding, (5) educational, (6) breeding in captivity, circus and other exhibitions, (7) conventional medicine, (8) law enforcement / judicial / forensic purposes. The most traded genus was unspecified (Hippocampus spp.), then the H. kuda, the H. reidi and the H. erectus as living specimens or dead bodies; also the ones from the wild and for the commercial purposes. Those came mostly from Vietnam, Thailand or Australia. They were exported mainly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Australia. The greatest importers were the USA, Germany and the Great Britain.

Excessive exploitation of natural resources and devastation of wild nature leads to drastic biodiversity decline. Macaws are endangered by trade for their beautiful colourful feathers, ability to learn to talk and become great companion parrot. Eight of the sixteen species of macaws are classified as vulnerable, endangered or critically endangered and all populations of macaws are decreasing. Species Cyanopsitta spixii is extinct in wild nature. Aims of my thesis are evaluation of world trade with species of Arini tribe, according to the temporal aspect, country of export, country of import and for individual species. In the second part of thesis are complete information about biology and biogeography of macaw species, their occurrence in nature and breading in captivity. The first analysis of trade with macaw's species provides statements about export and import countries, most traded species and commodities, source of the specimens and purpose of the transaction. Results of analysis shows, that in during period 1981 - 2013 was traded with 260 476 specimens. The most traded species were Ara ararauna, Ara chloroptera and Diopsittaca nobilis. Countries with highest export were Guyana, Bolivia and South Africa and country with highest import was The United States of America.

The aim of the thesis is to Analyse exports of selected agricultural production of the Russian Federation to foreign markets. The analysis will be the basis for the design of management development activities to improve the export of this production.