Diss. (sammanfattning) Uppsala : Sveriges lantbruksuniv., 2007. / Härtill 4 uppsatser.

Master of Science / Department of Biology / Keith B. Gido / The upper Gila River basin in southwest New Mexico, USA is one of the few unimpounded drainage basins in North America and is a stronghold for the unique and endemic fishes west of the Continental Divide. Multiple non-indigenous fishes have been introduced to the Gila River and are a potential threat to native fishes, yet very little is known of the trophic ecology of the native and nonnative fishes. We used diet and stable isotopes collected from native and nonnative fishes to identify their trophic relationships and evaluate potential interactions in the upper Gila River basin during June-July, 2007 and 2008. Diet and stable isotope data indicated aquatic invertebrates were the primary food for both native and nonnative fishes. Native large-bodied fishes were mainly algivore/detritivores and native small-bodied fishes were primarily insectivores. Small-bodied nonnative fishes fed on detritus and aquatic invertebrates. Nonnative predators preyed on small-bodied fishes and predaceous aquatic invertebrates and had higher trophic positions than all native fishes. Although nonnative predators did not rely exclusively on native fishes as prey, their presence extended community food-chain lengths, and the combined predation on juvenile native fishes by multiple apex predators may threaten persistence of native fishes. The lack of concise evidence for negative effects suggested that impacts of nonnative predators were more subtle and confirmed the underlying complexity of a relatively simple community The extensive database on feeding relations of Gila River fishes allowed us to further understand how energy moves through ecosystems. Specifically, the goal of chapter two was to characterize variation in fish-community food web structure within and among study reaches on the Gila River using [superscript]13C and [superscript]15N stable isotopes. We hypothesized that food web structure would reflect variation in fish community structure, resource availability and environmental conditions across habitats. Food web structure in isotope bi-plot space was estimated using community-wide measures of trophic structure, mean trophic position, and food-chain length. Permutational multivariate analysis of variance indicated that indices of food web structure were more variable among than within reaches and this pattern was primarily associated with variation in trophicl area occupied by taxa in isotope bi-plot space and mean trophic position of those taxa. Variation in food web structure was significantly associated with fish species richness across macrohabitats but was weakly associated with abiotic reach-scale factors. Variation in food web structure was concordant with variation in fish community composition and suggested that factors influencing the distribution of fishes also influence food web structure.

Invasive non-native species are believed to be one of the biggest threats to biodiversity. Until now biological invasions have been mainly studied from a biological perspective and much research has been undertaken to investigate species’ ecology and potential options for management. Comparatively little attention has been devoted to questions regarding the social construction of the issue. This is despite invasion biologists increasingly acknowledging the fundamental importance of human perceptions, beliefs, attitudes and values inherent in debates about invasive non-native species. This thesis employs a mix of methods from the social sciences to investigate the social construction of biological invasions. Research conducted here is based on the theory of social representations. Thus, taking a social scientific perspective, the thesis contributes to both the development of the theory and an identification of beliefs inherent in the debate on biological invasions and their relationship to people’s attitudes towards species and their management. Those species attributes that predominantly shape the debate – but yet appear to be under-researched – are identified. Based on the findings in this thesis I argue that invasion biology would benefit from a more explicit and transparent use of its concepts and terminology. This will have implications also for the communication with policy makers, conservation managers and the general public. Recommendations for future research are discussed along with limitations of the thesis.

The spread of nonnative invasive species has become the second greatest threat to global biodiversity, making management of invasive species a critical component of the conservation of biodiversity worldwide. Managers and conservation biologists often lack basic life history data, as well as quantitative and theoretical models to predict risk of invasion or other negative effects. I contribute information to both categories by providing life history information (diet and morphology) of the Purple Swamphen (Porphyrio porphyrio) and by characterizing the invasion pathways that nonnative avian species in Florida follow. I found Purple Swamphens are predominantly eating and selecting for Eleocharis cellulosa. Additionally, there is a large amount of variation in nonnative avian species’ propensity to colonize natural habitat and the time it takes to do so. Nine out of 15 species investigated colonized natural habitat and the time it took them to do so ranged from 8 to 41 years. It is through a combination of various techniques that ecologists will begin to fully understand the importance of studying nonnative species as well as reducing the impact that nonnatives have on native ecosystems. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.S.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2015 / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection

A introdução de espécies nos ecossistemas pode levar a conseqüências difíceis de serem controladas, sendo que a competição por recursos alimentares talvez seja o principal meio pelo qual uma espécie introduzida possa afetar as espécies nativas, podendo ocasionar a extinção. Neste sentido, os estudos de alimentação tornam-se importantes ao fornecerem subsídios para compreender o funcionamento trófico de um ecossistema. Considerando estes aspectos, o objetivo da pesquisa foi conhecer a ecologia trófica das espécies introduzidas (Plagioscion squamosissimus e Cichla cf. ocellaris) e da espécie nativa (Geophagus brasiliensis), avaliando as possíveis interações entre elas. Para o estudo da dieta das espécies escolhidas, foram utilizados os exemplares capturados durante o desenvolvimento do projeto PROBIO 2. As coletas foram realizadas nos seis reservatórios do Médio e Baixo rio Tietê, no período de novembro de 2002 a fevereiro de 2004. Foram realizadas análises quantitativas (freqüência de ocorrência, método volumétrico e método gravimétrico) dos itens encontrados, caracterizando a preferência alimentar das espécies. Neste trabalho o acará (Geophagus brasiliensis), apresentou um hábito alimentar onívoro, consumindo principalmente larvas de Diptera, insetos aquáticos e microcrustáceos. A espécie (Cichla cf. ocellaris) apresentou um hábito alimentar piscívoro, consumindo principalmente peixes e crustáceos. A corvina (P. squamossisimus) foi considerada piscívora, apresentando um amplo espectro alimentar, consumindo principalmente peixes, insetos aquáticos e crustáceos. A ampla distribuição da espécie P. squamosissimus nos seis reservatórios do médio e baixo rio Tietê e a plasticidade alimentar evidenciada pela análise de conteúdo estomacal sugerem que a corvina exerce uma forte pressão sobre as espécies nativas, cuja dinâmica populacional pode ser alterada. / The species introduction into the ecosystems may lead to difficult consequences hard to be controlled and the competition for food resources being the main factor by which introduced species can affect the native species, even causing their extinction. In this sense, the feeding studies are important by supplying subsidies to understand the trophic functioning of an ecosystem. Considering these aspects, the objective of this research was to know the trophic ecology of the introduced species Plagioscion squamosissimus and Cichla cf. ocellaris and of the native species (Geophagus brasiliensis), evaluating the possible interactions between them. For the diet study of the chosen species, were used the samples collected during the development of the project PROBIO 2. Sampling was carried out in six reservoirs of the Middle and Low Tietê river, between November 2002 and February 2004. Qualitative analysis was done (occurrence frequency, volumetric method e gravimetric method) on the found items, characterizing the species feeding preference. In this work, the acará (Geophagus brasiliensis) presented an omnivorous feeding habit, mainly consuming Dipteral worms, aquatic insects and micro crustaceans. The species (Cichla cf. ocellaris) presented a piscivorous feeding habit, mainly consuming fishes and crustaceans. The curvina (P. squamossisimus) was considered piscivorous, presenting an ample feeding spectrum, mainly consuming fishes, aquatic insects and crustaceans. The ample distribution of the specie P. squamosissimus in the six reservoirs of the Middle and Low Tietê river and the plasticity revealed by the stomach content analysis, suggests that the curvina exercises a strong pressure over the native species, in which population dynamics can be changed.

Invasion physiology is an emerging field that endeavors to understand the influence of physiological traits on the establishment of non-native species in novel environments. The invasive European green crab,Carcinus maenas, is one of the world's most successful aquatic invaders, and is currently distributed across temperate marine ecosystems globally. The work presented here explored the thermal physiology of this species, and has highlighted several physiological traits that have likely influenced establishment success. Intraspecific comparisons of crabs sampled from the northern and southern edges of their recipient, or invaded range on the west coast of North America have identified both organismal and cellular physiological difference with respect to upper and lower thermal tolerances. Crabs sampled from British Columbia, Canada (BC) had a significantly lower mean upper thermal tolerance threshold and heat shock protein synthesis, Hsp70, compared to their warm acclimated conspecifics sampled from California (CA). These differential physiologic responses may be rooted in the disparate natural thermal habitats that each population occupies within their respective environments. The ability of this species to extend its current range limits was also investigated. Range expansion to the south has been limited, and is likely restricted by this species lack of adaptation to warmer temperatures. Because range expansion has been chiefly northward, characterizing this species' response to cold stress can identify whether colder temperatures poleward may limit further range expansion. Cold tolerance capacity was determined in the laboratory, and crabs sampled from Vancouver Island, British Columbia were able to withstand the over-wintering thermal regime that occurs in Sitka, Alaska, a site that is currently beyond the range limits of this species. Furthermore, intraspecific assessments found that the cold acclimated BC population exposed to cold shock significantly down regulated protein levels of cyclin D1, cell cycle modulator. Distinct differences in carapace width (CW) were detected along the thermal gradient present in the green crabs' range. This variation in body size was utilized to the test the temperature size rule hypothesis for ectotherms. Simply stated, the temperature size rule is the tendency for ectotherms to develop slower but mature to a larger body sizes at cooler temperatures. The results supported this hypothesis as crabs sampled from the warm portion of the range were found to be smaller than crabs sampled from the colder portion of the range. This pattern was detected along the native range as well. Differences in body size have the potential to influence the scope of invasion; larger individuals are generally more fecund and longer lived, which can increase both the intensity and frequency of larval dispersal that could further propel range expansion. The physiologic properties that the green crab possesses which may influence invasion success were examined using peer-reviewed literature with the aim of determining if these physiological traits confer invasion success across taxa. This analysis tested four hypotheses: 1) Broad geographic temperature tolerances (thermal width) confer a higher upper thermal tolerance threshold when comparing invasive and native species. 2) The upper thermal extreme experienced in nature is correlated with upper thermal tolerance threshold. 3) Protein chaperone expression, a cellular mechanism underlying thermal tolerance threshold, is greater in invasive organisms than in native ones. 4) Acclimation to higher temperatures can promote a greater range of thermal tolerance for invasives compared to natives. These preliminary results generally support the four stated hypotheses, and provide a solid foundation for further studies to explore and identify physiologic traits that facilitate invasion success. Overall, these studies investigated the thermal physiology ofCarcinus maenasfrom an invasive metapopulation and have brought about significant advances in our understanding of what physiologic traits correlate to invasion success in this species. In addition, the data presented here can aid resource managers in identifying habitats, based on thermal tolerance measurements that fit the criteria for invasion. Understanding how invasive organisms vary with respect to thermal tolerance can aid our understanding the patterns and processes of species invasions.

For a number of years wildlife workers have realized the importance of the past histories of introduced species. Emphasis in recent years has been directed toward introductions because of the tremendous hunting and fishing pressures. Yearly increases in numbers of hunters and fishermen have been noted in Utah for the past forty years. It is hoped that this compilationo f the histories of the introduced game and fish species of Utah will be of value to sportsmen and wildlife managers alike in planning future introductions. The material included in this paper was obtained from United States Government reports, Utah Territorial reports, Utah State reports, newspapers and periodicals, personal interviews, and wardens' questionaires

In light of human-mediated environmental change, a fundamental goal for biologists is to determine which phenotypic characteristics enable some individuals, populations or species to be more adept at coping with such change, while rendering others more vulnerable. Studying ongoing range expansions provide a unique opportunity to address this question by allowing documentation of how novel environments shape phenotypic variation on ecological timescales. At range-edges, individuals are exposed to strong selective pressures and population genetic challenges (e.g. bottlenecks and/or founder effects), which make genetic adaptation difficult. Nevertheless, certain species, such as the house sparrow (Passer domesticus), seem to thrive in their introduced ranges, despite genetic challenges, resulting in a genetic paradox. Increasing evidence suggests that rapid phenotypic differentiation at range-edges may be facilitated by phenotypic plasticity among individuals. Further, a role for epigenetic mechanisms as molecular drivers of such plasticity—particularly in genetically depauperate populations—has recently garnered empirical support across a broad range of taxa. For my dissertation, I investigated the role of epigenetic mechanisms (i.e. DNA methylation) as a potential mediator of range expansion success in vertebrates. Specifically, I proposed that success or failure at range-edges may be underlain by variation in the capacity for epigenetically-mediated plasticity (i.e. epigenetic potential) and used extant literature on an inherently plastic and highly integrated physiological system (i.e. the HPA-axis) to support this hypothesis (Chapter I). I then tested these ideas empirically by examining the relative contribution of genetic and epigenetic variation to immunological variation in Kenyan house sparrows (Chapter II) and explored whether mediators of neural plasticity (i.e. BDNF) and epigenetic potential (i.e. DNA methyltransferases; DNMTs) varied among populations of Senegalese house sparrows, including the potential for covariation among BDNF, DNMTs and corticosterone (CORT) within individuals (Chapter III). Flexibility in the regulation of glucocorticoids (GCs) via the HPA-axis is crucial for survival at range-edges because (i) GCs act as integrators capable of coordinating diverse physiological and/or behavioral responses and (ii) the HPA-axis contains multiple regulatory checkpoints which may help to buffer organisms from maladaptive responses (via redundancy) while simultaneously allowing for the fine-tuning of phenotypic responses to future stressors contingent on current and past experiences. GC regulatory flexibility can be influenced by (and in some cases have an effect on) variation in the capacity for epigenetic mechanisms to regulate environmentally-induced phenotypic changes (i.e. epigenetic potential). DNMTs are capacitators of epigenetic change, thus provide one such example of how variation in epigenetic potential could arise via genetic (e.g. variation in coding regions of DNMT genes) and/or environmental (e.g. developmental programming of DNMT expression) factors. For my first chapter, I conducted a literature review to explore where within the HPA-axis epigenetic potential was most likely to occur and to demonstrate how such variation could promote/constrain range expansion success via its impact on GC regulatory flexibility. Results from the literature search revealed that within the HPA-axis, evidence for epigenetic regulation was highest for receptors, suggesting that variation in epigenetic potential of these targets may be most impactful for variation in GC regulatory flexibility. Using a physiological regulatory network (PRN) framework, I showed how variation in epigenetic potential can modify plasticity of PRN states by altering the regulatory relationships (e.g. connectivity) between HPA elements (e.g. GCs as central hubs) and other physiological/behavioral traits (e.g. subnetworks). As such, I portrayed how genetic forms of epigenetic potential can dictate the upper/lower limits of an individual’s homeostatic range, while environmental forms can act to further titrate GC regulatory flexibility through plasticity of PRN states or stabilization of PRN states. The concept of epigenetic potential in the HPA-axis demonstrates how plasticity at the molecular level can influence plasticity at the whole-organism level, which is likely to be important when coping with novel challenges at range-edges. Among the strongest of selective pressures faced by range-edge populations is exposure to parasites, particularly those with which individuals have little to no evolutionary history. Previous work from our lab on house sparrows in Kenya—site of an ongoing range expansion—revealed that range-edge birds had higher expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4—a microbial surveillance gene) than birds from the range-core. Moreover, extensive inter-individual variation in genome-wide DNA methylation was found among Kenyan house sparrows, including an inverse relationship between epigenetic diversity and genetic diversity across populations. For my second chapter, I investigated whether these two observations were related, asking whether and how DNA methylation and/or genetic variation within the putative promoter of the TLR4 gene contributed to variation in TLR4 expression. I found that DNA methylation status at CpG1, which varied from only ~73-100%, was a strong predictor of TLR4 expression within individuals. Interestingly, other studies have shown that similar magnitudes of variation in DNA methylation of TLR4 can result in differences in the susceptibility/resistance to bacterial pathogens, thus, it’s plausible that the variation we observed could have functional implications for host defense. I also discovered four genetically linked polymorphisms within the TLR4 promoter that grouped into two general genotypes. We revealed a trend that suggests that genotype differences may influence TLR4 expression, confirmation of which may be possible with increased representation from individuals with the rare genotype. Given that DNA methylation did not vary systematically among populations and evidence for extensive genetic admixture at the Kenyan range-edge, it seems likely that individual-level factors (e.g. genotype, early-life experience, infection history, etc.) may be more predictive of variation in DNA methylation of TLR4 than population-level processes. Coping with novel challenges often requires coordinated adjustments to environmentally-sensitive (i.e. plastic) traits. Findings from my first dissertation chapter, as well as previous research from the Martin lab, revealed that CORT regulation, exploratory behavior and epigenetic mechanisms likely contribute to range expansion success in house sparrows. Within the hippocampus, mediators of neural plasticity such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), play a unique role in the bidirectional regulation of CORT and exploratory behavior, with important implications for hippocampal-dependent learning and memory. Moreover, evidence suggests that the regulatory capacity of CORT and BDNF to influence learning and memory relies heavily on the catalytic capacity of epigenetic modification enzymes—including DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). For my third chapter, I explored whether previous CORT/behavioral/epigenetic patterns contributed to population-level differences in hippocampal BDNF expression and/or hippocampal expression of DNMTs (mediators of epigenetic potential), including potential covariation among CORT, BDNF and DNMTs within individuals. I collected house sparrows from three populations in Senegal—site of an ongoing range expansion—and measured stressor-induced CORT, hippocampal BDNF, DNMT1 and DNMT3a expression. Given the potential importance of neural plasticity and epigenetic potential for coping with novel challenges, I hypothesized that BDNF and DNMT expression would be highest at the range-edge, while positive covariation would occur between CORT, BDNF and/or DNMT expression within individuals. I found that intermediate levels of CORT resulted in the highest BDNF expression within individuals, suggesting that interactions between CORT and BDNF are likely important for balancing homeostatic and progressive (e.g. cognitive) changes within the hippocampus in response to environmental challenges. I also found that CORT positively covaried with DNMT1 expression in one, but not both, range-edge populations, while the reverse was true at the range-core. These findings suggest that in newly established population, CORT may promote epigenetic potential, allowing for rapid and fine-tuned organism-wide responses to novel stressors, while at the range-core, where stressors are presumably less novel, CORT may inhibit epigenetic potential as a means of diverting resources away from cognitive processes and towards maintaining homeostasis. Altogether, my dissertation has demonstrated how inherently plastic sub-organismal level traits (i.e. molecular, physiological, and neurological) may interact and contribute to range expansion success in an introduced bird. Specifically, my research has not only shown that epigenetic variation can influence an ecologically-relevant trait, but also that variation in the regulatory potential of epigenetic mechanisms can be mediated by intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These studies have expanded our understanding about how epigenetic mechanisms act as regulatory mediators of plasticity at the molecular level and can influence (and be influenced by) variation at multiple phenotypic levels, with implications for whole-organism performance in natural populations. I hope that my work contributes to the field of ecological epigenetics by providing the framework for epigenetic potential as an additional tool for assessing how epigenetic processes contribute to phenotypic outcomes in the face of rapid environmental change.

Species translocations result in demographic bottlenecks that may produce inbreeding depression and reduce genetic variation through random sampling and drift, an outcome that could decrease long-term fitness and adaptive potential of many New Zealand species. Despite considerable evidence for costs associated with inbreeding and reduced genetic variation, some species have recovered from a small number of individuals and are thriving, perhaps via high growth rates, differential survival of heterozygous individuals or inbreeding avoidance. I examined the genetic consequences of species translocations in saddlebacks (Philesturnus carunculatus) with additional data provided for robins (Petroica australis) where possible. I first assessed whether contemporary genetic variation represented historical levels or a decline following demographic bottlenecks. I then examined whether sequential demographic bottlenecks caused sequential genetic bottlenecks and reviewed whether populations founded with a small number of birds were likely to go extinct. This analysis was followed by an investigation of two mechanisms that may maintain or reduce fitness costs, differential survival of heterozygous individuals and mate choice to avoid genetically similar individuals. Evidence from museum specimens suggests that low levels of genetic variation in contemporary saddlebacks is no different to historical genetic variation in the only source population, Big South Cape Island. An ancient founding event to Big South Cape Island is probably the cause of severe genetic bottlenecking rather than the demographic bottleneck caused by rats in the 1960s. In robins, genetic variation decreased slightly between museum and contemporary samples suggesting that recent population declines and habitat fragmentation have caused reductions in current levels of genetic variation. Serial demographic bottlenecks caused by sequential translocations of saddlebacks did not appear to decrease genetic variation. Loss of genetic variation due to random sampling was probably minimized because the low level of genetic variation remaining in the species was probably represented in the number of birds translocated to new islands. Models assessing future loss of genetic variation via drift showed that high growth rates combined with high carrying capacity on large islands would probably maintain existing genetic variation. In contrast, low carrying capacity on small islands would probably result in considerable loss of genetic variation over time. Saddleback populations on small islands may require occasional immigrants to maintain long-term genetic variation. Saddleback and robin populations established with a small number of founders did not have an increased risk of failure, suggesting that inbreeding was not substantial enough to prevent populations from growing and recovering. However, modelling showed that translocated saddleback and robin populations grow exponentially even when egg failure rates (a measure of inbreeding depression) are extremely high. Although inbreeding depression may be considerable, populations may be judged healthy simply because they show strong growth rates. Discounting the problem of inbreeding depression may be premature especially under novel circumstances such as environmental change or disease. Finally, two mechanisms proposed to avoid or delay the costs of inbreeding depression and loss of genetic variation do not appear to be important in saddlebacks or robins. Heterozygosity was not related to survivorship in saddlebacks that successfully founded new populations, and neither saddlebacks nor robins chose genetically dissimilar mates to avoid inbreeding. In conclusion, most saddleback populations should not require genetic management, although populations on small islands will probably need occasional immigrants. In robins, large, unfragmented populations should be protected where possible.

"April 2004" / Bibliography: leaves 152-171. / xv, 171 leaves : ill., maps ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Discipline of Environmental Biology, 2004