Postpartum depression is an illness that is frequently unreported and undetected for a variety of reasons and may be potentially devastating for the mother affected as well as her family. Routine screening of postpartum women enables health practitioners to detect symptoms of PPD early and provides an opportunity for early intervention which may improve the outcome and increase the mother’s chances of an earlier recovery. It is therefore important that reliable and convenient screening tools are available to health practitioners who have contact with postpartum women. The primary objective of this research was to make an Afrikaans version of an existing screening scale available – the Postpartum Depression Screening Scale (PDSS), designed specifically to encompass the multifaceted phenomenon of PPD. In accordance with this objective, the validity and reliability of the PDSS and its Afrikaans version was investigated in English- and Afrikaans-speaking South African mothers. A further objective of this study was to compare the performance of the PDSS with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale (EPDS) and the Quick Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology (QIDS-SR16). Various factors have been reported to be associated with the development of PPD. The final objective of this study was to explore the relationship between known risk factors for PPD and high scores on the PDSS amongst women in South African. A total of 365 South African mothers, between 4 and 16 weeks postpartum participated in this study. English-speaking mothers (n = 187) completed the PDSS, EPDS, QIDS, and a demographic and psychosocial questionnaire, while Afrikaans speaking mothers (n = 178) completed the respective Afrikaans versions of these questionnaires. A multiple translation method – Brislin’s back-translation method and the committee approach – was used to translate the PDSS and the QIDS into Afrikaans. An item response theory (IRT), Rasch analysis, was used to examine dimensionality, item difficulty, differential item functioning, and category functioning of the PDSS and the Afrikaans PDSS. Results reveal excellent person reliability estimates for the Afrikaans PDSS as well as for the PDSS in a South African sample. Both language versions performed reasonably well and the majority of items in the PDSS dimensions and the Afrikaans PDSS dimensions demonstrated fit statistics that supported the underlying constructs of each dimension. Some items were identified as problematic, namely Item 2, Item 25, Item 28, and Item 30. The item person construct maps show reasonably good spread of items. There were, however, persons that scored higher than the items could measure and an overrepresentation of items at the mean level. The Likert response categories proved to be effective for all the Afrikaans PDSS items and almost all the PDSS items. Results indicate that 49.7% of mothers screened positive for major PPD using the PDSS. A further 17.3% of mothers obtained scores indicating the presence of significant symptoms of PPD. Statistically significant correlations were obtained between total scores on the PDSS, the EPDS, and the QIDS-SR16. Stepwise multiple regression analysis identified 11 variables that were significantly associated with a high PDSS total score. These were a history of psychiatric illness, postpartum blues, feeling negative or ambivalent about expecting this baby, fearful of childbirth, infant temperament, antenatal depression in recent pregnancy, lack of support from the baby’s father, concern about health related issues regarding the infant, lack of support from friends, difficulty conceiving, and life stress. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Psychology / unrestricted

Dynamic assessment, as manner of alternative process-based assessment, is currently at a cross-roads chiefly characterised by, at times, vague conceptualisation of terminology, blurred demarcation as to its model and theory status and at times ill-defined fundamental philosophy. As a movement in modern psychological assessment within the broader field of intelligence, dynamic assessment does not present with a coherent unifying theory as such and due to its lack of clarity in a number of key areas its eventual disuse might well be the final outcome of this method and its unique history and methodology. In pursuit of this study’s main goal, dynamic assessment models and theories are critically explored by means of a meta-theory largely inspired by the work K.B. Madsen, a Danish meta-theorist and pioneer in theoretical psychology. Madsen’s meta-theory is attenuated in order to suit the nature and purposes of this study; so as to better analyse dynamic assessment within intelligence research and assessment. In its primary aim, this study builds on a foundation of epistemological and ontological considerations within science in general, the social sciences and psychology in particular. In keeping with Madsen’s method of meta-theory analysis, the author’s predilections are stated at the outset in order to place the progression of analyses of the various models and theories within dynamic assessment. Dynamic assessment and intelligence are discussed and a brief digression into the history of Soviet psychology is offered as it is pertinent to the work of Lev Vygotsky and its subsequent influence within process-based assessment. Theory and model development within science and the social sciences are described from a philosophy-of-science vantage point. Psychological assessment’s prime considerations are critically explored and the discussion highlights the role played by the philosophical aspects of mathematics and statistical foundations as leveraging measurement within assessment. Particular attention is paid to the perennial controversy surrounding null hypothesis significance testing and the possible future directions that can be explored by and within dynamic assessment which lends itself to approaches less restrictive than those offered by mainstream statistics. The obvious and not so obvious aspects within the mathematical, statistical and measurement foundations are critically explored in terms of how best dynamic assessment can manoeuvre within the current mainstream psychological assessment system and how new models of item response theory suited to change-based assessment can be explored as possible manner of handling the gain score issue; itself a paradoxical state of affairs within classical and modern test theory. Dynamic assessment’s past has in large part been dictated by mainstream considerations in the areas mentioned and in order to place itself on an alternative path these considerations are critically assessed in terms of dynamic assessment’s future path. Dynamic assessment and its place within the broader intelligence assessment field is then investigated by means of the meta-theory developed. It is envisaged that the intuitive appeal of dynamic assessment will continue to garner support from practitioners across the globe, specifically those trained in countries outside the traditional stronghold of Western psychological theory. However, the position taken in this argument is that in order to ensure its survival it will need to make a decision in terms of its future progress: either to branch off from mainstream assessment altogether or to become fused within mainstream assessment. The “best of both worlds” scenario has obviously not worked out as it was originally hoped. The study concludes with the meta-theoretical exploration of dynamic assessment within intelligence by utilising a small selection of current models. The application of the attenuated Madsenian framework seeks to explore, place and ascertain the nature of each model regarding the ontological and philosophical status of the approach; the nature of the hypothetical terminology, scientific hypotheses and hypothesis system utilised and lastly the nature of the abstract data, concrete data and prime considerations as implicit concerns within the varied approaches. An HQ score is calculated for each such model and is a partial indicator of the testability (verifiability or falsifiability) of the model in question. The models are thus couched in meta, hypothetical and data strata and can be positioned on a continuum of sorts according to which tentative claims can be made regarding the veracity of the approach behind each model. The study concludes with two appendices; a meta-analysis which was conducted on South African research in the field of dynamic assessment (1961-2002) and which cumulated in a significant effect size evidencing an overall positive effect that dynamic assessment has had as an alternative intervention technique in comparison to conventional or static based assessment models. In order to encourage replication of this study, all details pertaining to the studies included for consideration in the meta-analyses are attached in section 2 of this appendix. Secondly, an informal content analysis was conducted on eleven responses to questionnaires that were originally delivered to one hundred dynamic assessment practitioners and researchers across the globe. The purpose of the questionnaire was to ascertain information on core issues within dynamic assessment, as these fundamental issues were considered as pivotal in the future of this approaches’ eventual development or stagnation. The analysis concluded that dynamic assessment is indeed perceived to be at a crossroads of sorts and thus supported the initial hypothesis stated above. It is hoped that this theoretical study will aid in aligning dynamic assessment in a manner such that its eventual place in psychological assessment will be solidly grounded, theoretically defensible and viable as alternative manner of assessment. / Thesis (PhD (Psychology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Psychology / PhD / PhD / unrestricted

Die vorliegende Arbeit verknüpft die Theorie der Interaktion psychischer Systeme von Kuhl (2000, 2001) mit dem Modell beruflicher Arbeitsleistung von Tett und Burnett (2003). Unter Anwendung reizorientierter arbeitspsychologischer Stressmodelle werden Hypothesen über einen durch das subjektive Bedrohungs- und Belastungspotenzial der Arbeitssituation moderierten Zusammenhang zwischen dem berufsbezogenen und nach Maßgabe der Item Response Theorie skalierbaren Persönlichkeitsmerkmal Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung und beruflicher Arbeitsleistung aufgestellt. In drei Befragungen an N = 415, N = 331 sowie N = 49 Berufstätigen wurden querschnittliche Daten zur Hypothesenprüfung erhoben. Berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung zeigt sich als valides Subkonstrukt der allgemeinen Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, welches gemäß Graded Response Modell von Samejima (1969, 1997) mit 14 Items skalierbar ist. Prospektive berufsbezogene Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung erklärt in multiplen hierarchischen Regressionsanalysen, im Gegensatz zu allgemeiner Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung, inkrementell zu Gewissenhaftigkeit, Extraversion und Neurotizismus Anteile kontextueller und aufgabenbezogener Arbeitsleistung. Hypothesenkonträr werden diese Zusammenhänge nur marginal vom subjektiven Belastungspotential der Arbeitssituation moderiert. Die Prädiktorfunktion prospektiver berufsbezogener Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung für berufliche Arbeitsleistung bleibt auch unter pfadanalytischer Kontrolle eines vorhandenen Common Method Bias erhalten. Die dispositionelle Fähigkeit, durch berufliche Hindernisse gehemmten positiven Affekt vorbewusst gegenregulieren zu können, scheint demnach ein bedeutender Prädiktor beruflicher Arbeitsleistung zu sein, insbesondere bei Führungskräften. Für die berufliche Eignungsbeurteilung ist es damit von diagnostischem Mehrwert, Handlungs- vs. Lageorientierung kontextualisiert zu erheben. Der Einsatz probabilistisch- testtheoretisch konstruierter Skalen steigert dabei die Effizienz des Beurteilungsprozesses. / The current paper combines personality systems interaction theory (Kuhl, 2000, 2001) with the model of job performance by Tett and Burnett (2003). Using established stress models from work psychology it is hypothesized that there is a relation between occupational action state orientation, scalable by means of items response theory, and job performance, which is moderated by the subjective stress level of job characteristics. Three surveys among samples of N = 415, N = 331, and N = 49 professionals yielded cross sectional data for investigating the hypotheses. Occupational action state orientation proves a valid construct which is compatible with Samejima’s (1969, 1997) Graded Response Model using a 14-item scale. As a result of multiple hierarchical regression analyses, the hesitation dimension of specifically occupational, in contrast to general action state orientation is a predictor of both contextual and task performance, incremental to conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism. Contrary to expectations this relation is only marginally moderated by stress-relevant job characteristics. Even when controlling for an occurring common method bias by means of path analysis the occupational hesitation dimension’s predictor role perseveres. Therefore, the dispositional ability in subconsciously regulating inhibited positive affect due to occupational obstacles, seems to be a crucial predictor of job performance, especially regarding leaders. Hence, professional aptitude assessment benefits from assessing action state orientation in a contextualized manner. Application of item response theory-based scales further enhances assessment process efficiency.

In this thesis, we describe and analyze computerized adaptive tests (CAT), the class of psychometrics tests in which items are selected based on the actual estimate of respondent's ability. We focus on the tests based on di- chotomic IRT (item response theory) models. We present critera for item selection, methods for ability estimation and termination criteria, as well as methods for exposure rate control and content balancing. In the analytical part, the effect of CAT settings on the average length of the test and on absoulute bias of ability estimates is investigated using linear regression mo- dels. We provide post hoc analysis of real data coming from real admission test with unknown true values of abilities, as well as simulation study based on the simulated answers of respondents with known true values of ability. In the last chapter of the thesis we investigate the possibilities of analysing adaptive tests in R software and of creating a real CAT. 1

Traditional tests for large-scale assessment of mathematics learning have been criticized for several reasons, such as their mismatch between the vision of mathematical competence and the content covered by the test, and their failure to provide relevant information for guiding further learning and instruction. To achieve that large-scale assessments can function as tools for monitoring and improving learning and teaching, one has to move away from the rationale, the constraints, and the practices of traditional tests. As an illustration this paper presents an alternative approach to largescale assessment of elementary school mathematics developed in Flanders, Belgium Using models of item response theory, 14 measurement scales were constructed, each representing a cluster of curriculum standards and covering as a whole the mathematics curriculum relating to numbers, measurement and geometry. A representative sample of 5,763 sixth-graders (12-year-olds) belonging to 184 schools participated in the study. Based on expert judgments a cut-off score was set that determines the minimum level that students must achieve on each scale to master the standards. Overall, the more innovative curriculum standards were mastered less well than the more traditional ones. Few gender differences in performance were observed. The advantages of this approach and its further development are discussed.

Cette thèse porte sur les tests adaptatifs dans les environnements d’apprentissage. Elle s’inscrit dans les contextes de fouille de données éducatives et d’analytique de l’apprentissage, où l’on s’intéresse à utiliser les données laissées par les apprenants dans des environnements éducatifs pour optimiser l’apprentissage au sens large.L’évaluation par ordinateur permet de stocker les réponses des apprenants facilement, afin de les analyser et d’améliorer les évaluations futures. Dans cette thèse, nous nous intéressons à un certain type de test par ordinateur, les tests adaptatifs. Ceux-ci permettent de poser une question à un apprenant, de traiter sa réponse à la volée, et de choisir la question suivante à lui poser en fonction de ses réponses précédentes. Ce processus réduit le nombre de questions à poser à un apprenant tout en conservant une mesure précise de son niveau. Les tests adaptatifs sont aujourd’hui implémentés pour des tests standardisés tels que le GMAT ou le GRE, administrés à des centaines de milliers d’étudiants. Toutefois, les modèles de tests adaptatifs traditionnels se contentent de noter les apprenants, ce qui est utile pour l’institution qui évalue, mais pas pour leur apprentissage. C’est pourquoi des modèles plus formatifs ont été proposés, permettant de faire un retour plus riche à l’apprenant à l’issue du test pour qu’il puisse comprendre ses lacunes et y remédier. On parle alors de diagnostic adaptatif.Dans cette thèse, nous avons répertorié des modèles de tests adaptatifs issus de différents pans de la littérature. Nous les avons comparés de façon qualitative et quantitative. Nous avons ainsi proposé un protocole expérimental, que nous avons implémenté pour comparer les principaux modèles de tests adaptatifs sur plusieurs jeux de données réelles. Cela nous a amenés à proposer un modèle hybride de diagnostic de connaissances adaptatif, meilleur que les modèles de tests formatifs existants sur tous les jeux de données testés. Enfin, nous avons élaboré une stratégie pour poser plusieursquestions au tout début du test afin de réaliser une meilleure première estimation des connaissances de l’apprenant. Ce système peut être appliqué à la génération automatique de feuilles d’exercices, par exemple sur un cours en ligne ouvert et massif (MOOC). / This thesis studies adaptive tests within learning environments. It falls within educational data mining and learning analytics, where student educational data is processed so as to optimize their learning.Computerized assessments allow us to store and analyze student data easily, in order to provide better tests for future learners. In this thesis, we focus on computerized adaptive testing. Such adaptive tests which can ask a question to the learner, analyze their answer on the fly, and choose the next question to ask accordingly. This process reduces the number of questions to ask to a learner while keeping an accurate measurement of their level. Adaptive tests are today massively used in practice, for example in the GMAT and GRE standardized tests, that are administered to hundreds of thousands of students. Traditionally, models used for adaptive assessment have been mostly summative : they measure or rank effectively examinees, but do not provide any other feedback. Recent advances have focused on formative assessments, that provide more useful feedback for both the learner and the teacher ; hence, they are more useful for improving student learning.In this thesis, we have reviewed adaptive testing models from various research communities. We have compared them qualitatively and quantitatively. Thus, we have proposed an experimental protocol that we have implemented in order to compare the most popular adaptive testing models, on real data. This led us to provide a hybrid model for adaptive cognitive diagnosis, better than existing models for formative assessment on all tried datasets. Finally, we have developed a strategy for asking several questions at the beginning of a test in order to measure the learner more accurately. This system can be applied to the automatic generation of worksheets, for example on a massive online open course (MOOC).

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Educators in many disciplines are too often forced to rely on intuition about how students learn and the effectiveness of teaching to guide changes and improvements to their curricula. In computer science, systems that perform automated collection and assessment of programming assignments are seeing increased adoption, and these systems generate a great deal of meaningful intermediate data and statistics during the grading process. Continuous collection of these data and long-term retention of collected data present educators with a new resource to assess both learning (how well students understand a topic or how they behave on assignments) and teaching (how effective a response, intervention, or assessment instrument was in evaluating knowledge or changing behavior), by basing their decisions on evidence rather than intuition. It is only possible to achieve these goals, however, if such data are easily accessible. I present an infrastructure that has been added to one such automated grading system, Web-CAT, in order to facilitate routine data collection and access while requiring very little added effort by instructors. Using this infrastructure, I present three case studies that serve as representative examples of educational questions that can be explored thoroughly using pre-existing data from required student work. The first case study examines student time management habits and finds that students perform better when they start earlier but that offering extra credit for finishing earlier did not encourage them to do so. The second case study evaluates a tool used to improve student understanding of manual memory management and finds that students made fewer errors when using the tool. The third case study evaluates the reference tests used to grade student code on a selected assignment and confirms that the tests are a suitable instrument for assessing student ability. In each case study, I use a data-driven, evidence-based approach spanning multiple semesters and students, allowing me to answer each question in greater detail than was possible using previous methods and giving me significantly increased confidence in my conclusions. / Ph. D.