The thesis deals with topic of universal jurisdiction with an emphasis on British House of Lords' decisions in case of former Chilean president Augusto Pinochet from years 1998 and 1999. Universal jurisdiction enables to prosecute crimes committed abroad by persons, who at time of such commission were neither the citizens of state in question nor the permanent residents of the state. It is expression of an idea, that it is common interest of the whole international community to prosecute the most serious crimes under international law, irrespective of any link to the prosecuting state, because such crimes relate to the whole international community and not only single state. The first chapter of the thesis deals with national criminal jurisdiction, whose comprehension is necessary for further understanding of universal jurisdiction. The universal jurisdiction is the main topic in the second chapter, in which I outline a brief history of the concept, mention application of the universal jurisdiction in case with Adolf Eichmann in Jerusalem, and try to find out where the importance of universal jurisdiction lies or what the main alleged disadvantages and risks are as well. My further concerns are the scope of universal jurisdiction, that is the crimes that are subjects to its application, universal...

Within mature criminal justice systems there exists a range of procedural mechanisms designed to provide the accused with protection from unlawful and unfair treatment by prosecuting authorities. Whilst some systems insist on judicial involvement in the investigation of crime, others grant the court discretionary powers to reject evidence or stay proceedings. Complex evidentiary rules flourish in common law systems, whereas civil law systems abide by the principle of the free evaluation of evidence. Judicial responses to the reception of irregularly obtained evidence vary, even within systems sharing a common tradition. Given the strong utilitarian tradition of the English and Scottish courts, judges tend to reason pragmatically rather than articulate principles. Theory and principle relevant to the exclusionary discretion are considered in Chapter 2. The extent of the general powers given to the prosecuting authorities in England and Scotland to gather real evidence, and the range of safeguards designed to protect the rights of suspects are examined in detail in Chapter 3. The fourth Chapter considers the admissibility of irregularly obtained evidence in both jurisdictions and questions whether, and to what extent, the procedural rules permit the court to balance effectively countervailing public interest considerations. The rules operating in France and Germany are examined in outline and used as comparative examples. Police investigative powers do not generally extend beyond the jurisdiction of the national court, thus prosecuting authorities requiring access to evidence located abroad seek assistance through operational police co-operation and mutual legal assistance procedures. These mechanisms are examined in Chapter 5, and consideration given to the differing approaches taken by the English and Scottish courts to the admissibility of regularly and irregularly obtained foreign evidence. The assumption is challenged that evidence obtained abroad can be assessed in the same manner as evidence obtained in breach of national rules without disturbing the fairness of the proceedings. Incorporation of the European Convention on Human Rights has potential for changing the court's response to questions of admissibility and is considered in Chapter 6. This thesis concludes with a critical analysis of the problems identified, and questions whether criminal justice systems can achieve a fair balance without understanding the complex interplay between procedural rules. Only by understanding the function of the procedural rule within each system can the risk of reducing the procedural protection to the accused be avoided. I have endeavoured to state the law as it stood at the end of July 2000.

The principle of territoriality is a truism in intellectual property (IP) law. A premise underlying the principle is the right of each state to determine the extent to which IP rights exist and are protected within its own territory to fulfil its own economic, social and cultural policy goals. This is done by giving a right to prevent others from doing within the protected territory any of the acts that are exclusively reserved to the right holder under the IP statute that granted or protects the IP right. The principle of territoriality informs that IP rights granted or protected by a state are independent from those granted or protected by other states, and that the rights conferred under each state’s IP law are limited to the territory of that state. As the principle of territoriality neatly allocated jurisdiction among states on a territorial basis, it purportedly obviated the need for private international law. Each state exercised jurisdiction over the infringement of its own rights and applied its own domestic IP law, which served the interests of the states and of the parties. With the increase in the protection and exploitation of IP rights across national borders, infringements do not remain within hermetically sealed national territories. Acts taken in one state can have effects in other states and impair the policies that the rights were designed to fulfil. This raises questions concerning the territorial scope of application of the domestic IP law, that is, whether it is interpreted with respect to a domestic tangible act, effects on a domestic policy goal or both. In addition, the transborder exploitation of IP rights raises questions of private international law with respect to whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes concerning infringements of their domestic rights or whether states exercise jurisdiction and apply national law to disputes arising from acts committed in their territories (or both). These determinations may depend on different factors such as the different interests taken into consideration (e.g. state or party interests), the different legal traditions upon which the legal systems are based and the characteristics and functions of the IP rights themselves. This dissertation compares the interpretation and operation of the principle of territoriality of IP law in the private law resolution of transborder IP infringement disputes in the legal systems of the European Union and the United States, two distinctly different legal systems that have significant trade and investment relations with each other. The comparison shows that while the systems are functionally similar, the principle of territoriality is interpreted and operates somewhat differently in the two legal systems.

Le contrôle juridictionnel comprend une large signification. Ce type de contrôle applique à toutes les personnes. Il s'agit les personnes physiques et les personnes morales. Mais, il y a une sorte de contrôle exercé sur l'Etat par une Cour spéciale. Cette Cour bénéficie d'une procédure et des lois spéciales. Dans cette étude nous vérifions l'existence ou l'absence de cette sorte de contrôle en droit iranien. Par conséquent, d'abord nous expliquons la signification des termes techniques dans la langue persane. La Constitution iranien de 1980 révisée en 1989 est la source principale à expliquer et prendre des exemples pour chaque définition. En réalité et dans le système juridictionnel de l'Iran, il existe la Cour de Justice Administrative qui possède la compétence de contrôler judiciaire des actions et des décisions de l'Etat. Cette Cour et ses compétences sont confrontées avec divers exceptions. Nous examinons la loi et la procédure de la CJA en tant que la seule organisation juridique administrative. Nous analysons également les administrations et les organisations gouvernementales qui fonctionnent sous la surveillance de la CJA. / The legal control includes a broad meaning. This type of control applies to all persons, whether individuals or legal persons. But there is a kind of control exercised over the State by a special Court. This Court has its specific procedure and law. In this study, the existence or absence of the control legal administrative over State in Iran will be verified. The significance of the keywords in this study is, also so important because there are some relevant and practical words. Due to this fact, at the first step, it seems necessary to define and explained these words in Persian language and the Iranian legal system. The Iranian Constitution of 1980 is the primary source to explain and give some examples for each definition. Practically in this judicial system, the Court of Administrative Justice has jurisdiction to control administrative, the State, its actions and decisions, in a legal manner. This Court and its competencies are considered with various exceptions. We examine the law and procedure of the CJA as a single legal organization monitoring the State. We also analyze government and government's organizations that operate under the supervision of the CJA. / Il controllo legale comprende un significato ampio. Questo tipo di controllo si applica a tutte le persone, siano essi persone fisiche o giuridiche. Ma c’è un tipo di controllo esercitato sullo stato da un tribunal speciale. Questa Corte ha la propia specifica procedura e di diritto. In questo studio, l’esistenza o l’assenza del diritto dello Stato controllo amministrativo in Iran saranno verificati. Il significato delle parole chiave di questo studio è, anche così importante, perché ci sono alcune parole importanti e pratico. A causa di questo fatto, al primo passo, si ritiene necessario definire e spiegare queste parole in lingua persiana e il sistema giuridico iraniano. La Costituzione iraniana del 1980 è la fonte primaria di spiegare e fornire alcuni esempi per ogni definizione. Praticamente in questo sistema giudiziario, la Corte di giustizia amministrativa è competente per il controllo amministrativo, lo Stato, le sue azioni e decisioni, in maniera legale. La Corte e le sue competenze sono considerati con diverse eccezioni. Esaminiamo la legge e la procedura della CJA come organizzazione giuridico unico controllo dello Stato. Vengono esaminate anche le organizzazioni governative e governative che operano sotto la supervisione della CJA.

Rules of diplomatic immunity, which nowadays are enshrined in the Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, play an important role in interstate diplomacy because they ensure the efficient performance of diplomatic functions. This thesis investigates a particular form of diplomatic immunity - diplomatic immunity ratione materiae. Unlike diplomatic immunity ratione personae, which pertains to the personal status of a diplomatic agent, diplomatic immunity ratione materiae depends in essence on the official nature of a particular act In practice, however, the determination of diplomatic immunity ratione materiae may meet with many conceptual and practical difficulties. For one, it is not always easy to distinguish the official acts of a diplomatic agent, who represents the sending State in the receiving State, from his or her private acts. In case of disagreement between the two States, questions may also arise as to who has the authority to make a final determination. The Vienna Convention does not offer much guidance on these issues; on the contrary, the Convention complicates them by employing, without adequate explanation, distinct formulas for different kinds of diplomatic immunity ratione materiae. This thesis examines these formulas in detail. On a general level, it is submitted that diplomatic immunity ratione materiae for certain types of activity constitutes not only a procedural bar to court proceedings but also a substantive exemption of individual responsibility. More specifically, it is argued that each formula must be understood in the light of the rationale behind immunity, the type of immunity concerned, and the specific functions or duties performed. In case of controversy, weight should be given to the opinion of the sending State, although the authority to make a decision lies ultimately with the court of the receiving State.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Ohio State University, 2006. / Title from first page of PDF file. Includes bibliographical references (p. 214-225).

Regard the local government, although in The Constitution chapter 10 (Powers of the Central and Local Governments) and in chapter 11 (System of Local Government) clearly state the self-governing power of the local authority, and mentioned the boarder line for the self-governing matters. However under the past influence of the centralized government structure, all matters are government affairs nation wide, the local governments are only to carry out the orders, in fact those so called the local governments are central government appointed departments, therefore delegation, commission or assignment of an administrative authority become less important, further more, the action is meaningless. Even to this day, the era of the local self-governing, delegation, commission or assignment of an administrative authority still faces many problems (For example Taipei and Kaohsiung, the two cities have their municipality directly under the jurisdiction of the Central Government office, and the office must monitor the appoint of the legislation, after the careful monitoring of the process of the appointing, then the follow the legislation shall legalize the practice, whether power commission may be exercised between two agencies of the same administrative bodies, whether a local government agency may commission with its supervised agency to exercise a part of its powers, etc¡K¡K), the cause of the confusion all goes back to the unclear separation of powers between the central government and the local governments, and to clearly regulate the problem in a short time isn¡¦t easy, therefore the urgent solution is the required for the disagreement from individual offices about the delegation, commission or assignment of an administrative authority etc¡K¡K, for this reason the aim of this study is to probe into the self-governing practice, detail the process and to recommend, to propose the following: 1. Study shows: a. The legislation of the power delegation rationalize the distribution of the manpower resources for the local government, shortens the time of decision making, lightens the responsibility of individual power delegating, and increases the proper use of the local self-governing power. b. The legislation of the power commission benefits the distribution of national resource of manpower, allows the proper practice of such actions, which also develop the advantage of direct office contact and the action of mutual aid. c. The legislation of the power assignment also sets up the vertical administrative supporting relationship between administrative bodies, and has the efficiency of the administrative offices¡¦ convenience work to its best. 2. Proposal: I. The making of legislation: a. Central government office shall define the meanings of delegation, commission and assignment of an administrative authority, give each action a clear responsibility, document the procedures and the importance of the above actions, in orders the administrative offices to put them in proper practice. b. The legislation should unify the terms for delegation, commission and assignment of an administrative authority. Define the principles of responsibilities for the central government and the local governments. The method of dividing the central-government and self-government matters according to its administrative needs in the present constitution is no longer up to date. c. Revise and set up the procedures of the legislation of assignment. II. Change the point of view: The central government should respect the power of the local government, implement the practice of self-governing, grant and authorize the local assignee to its complete power, respect the local assignee power to its max, increase the elasticity and the flexibility of the assignee office, put the nature and the resource of the manpower of the local government in consideration through the procedure of assignment. The local governments shouldn¡¦t unduly depend on the support of the central government like in the past, but welcome the time of self-governing, set up and face the idea of self-governing system, truly practice the age of autonomy.

Thesis (J.C.L.)--Catholic University of America, 2008. / Description based on Microfiche version record. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 62-66).

The airspace over the high seas is not a lawless domain. Although the theory of the freedom of the air has been challenged since the beginning of controlled flight, yet 'as regards the air above the high seas, the principle of freedom was never successfully challenged.' [...]

This study addresses the modern influence of maritime law on air law. In order to demonstrate that the influence still exists, at least in respect of conflicts of jurisdiction, a comparative analysis of the responsibility of the carriers of goods will be carried out in the light of international conventions. / The thesis will consider the new evolution of maritime law, which today, in many aspects, follows air law. It will become clear that both systems face the same difficulties. In particular, the multiplication of international conventions has weakened the aim of uniformity by admitting different regimes of the carriers' liability. Once the causes of conflicts of jurisdiction have been identified, the thesis will analyze how the conventions attempt to solve those conflicts. The use of forum shopping by the parties and the use of forum non conveniens by the courts, reveals that present international solutions are not satisfactory. The practice in maritime law is to consider a conflict prior to its existence and to permit jurisdiction as well as arbitration clauses. While the former clauses are forbidden in air law, arbitration clauses, although accepted in various international air conventions, have never been used until recently in air law, and only in respect of the financing of major projects. / It is therefore possible to believe today, that the maritime approach can and will be followed in respect of conflicts of carriage of goods by air, thus proving that maritime law does still influence the evolution of air law.