Macroalgae are a dominant feature of many rocky intertidal habitats worldwide. An understanding of the processes affecting their growth and survival, especially at early life history stages, is therefore important to an understanding of the structure of rocky intertidal communities. This thesis examines the role that the sediment environment has on habitat-dominating fucoid algae and intertidal community structure. Measurements of sediment flux showed considerable spatial and seasonal variation, while the benthic sediment environment remained relatively stable. Experimental disturbances over 13 months, showed two distinct effects. First, direct effects of sedimentation favoured ephemeral algae and also those with tough thalli. Secondary to this was an alteration of species interactions due to the shifts in community composition. The effect sedimentation has on habitat dominating fucoid algae was also examined with laboratory experiments and outplants of cultured algae. The presence of sediment had a negative effect on the ability of Cystophora torulosa and Hormosira banksii zygotes to attach to the substratum, with even sparse coverings of sediment preventing at least 37% of zygotes attaching to the substratum, and almost a complete recruitment failure with dense coverings of both sand and silt. Sediment and disturbance of turfing communities also influenced early post-settlement survival especially of C. torulosa. Manipulations of the sediment load, nutrient levels and grazer abundance showed the resilience of rocky intertidal communities to the predicted increase in nutrient leaves in coastal waters due to increases anthropogenic intrusion. Most research into the effects of sedimentation have been observational studies and much of the experimental work has been carried out subtidally. My experiments have extended research into the intertidal zone, finding that if sedimentation increases as predicted there will be a consequential loss of habitat dominating fucoid algae and its replacement with sediment tolerant species

Macroalgae are a dominant feature of many rocky intertidal habitats worldwide. An understanding of the processes affecting their growth and survival, especially at early life history stages, is therefore important to an understanding of the structure of rocky intertidal communities. This thesis examines the role that the sediment environment has on habitat-dominating fucoid algae and intertidal community structure. Measurements of sediment flux showed considerable spatial and seasonal variation, while the benthic sediment environment remained relatively stable. Experimental disturbances over 13 months, showed two distinct effects. First, direct effects of sedimentation favoured ephemeral algae and also those with tough thalli. Secondary to this was an alteration of species interactions due to the shifts in community composition. The effect sedimentation has on habitat dominating fucoid algae was also examined with laboratory experiments and outplants of cultured algae. The presence of sediment had a negative effect on the ability of Cystophora torulosa and Hormosira banksii zygotes to attach to the substratum, with even sparse coverings of sediment preventing at least 37% of zygotes attaching to the substratum, and almost a complete recruitment failure with dense coverings of both sand and silt. Sediment and disturbance of turfing communities also influenced early post-settlement survival especially of C. torulosa. Manipulations of the sediment load, nutrient levels and grazer abundance showed the resilience of rocky intertidal communities to the predicted increase in nutrient leaves in coastal waters due to increases anthropogenic intrusion. Most research into the effects of sedimentation have been observational studies and much of the experimental work has been carried out subtidally. My experiments have extended research into the intertidal zone, finding that if sedimentation increases as predicted there will be a consequential loss of habitat dominating fucoid algae and its replacement with sediment tolerant species

This study investigates the reproductive strategies of the pill-box crab, Halicarcinus cookii on the Kaikoura Peninsula, New Zealand. Various aspects essential to understanding reproductive strategies were examined including growth, population dynamics, reproductive biology and mating behaviour. H. cookii exhibits obvious sexual dimorphism such that females develop wide abdomens forming brood chambers, and males tend to grow larger than females and have larger chelipeds in relation to body size. H. cookii allocates energy into growth and reproduction in separate phases of its life cycle where growth ceases as reproductive maturity begins due to a terminal/pubertal moult. Despite the presence of ovigerous females throughout the 15 month sampling period, the population was highly seasonal, with peaks in recruitment and growth occurring primarily during the winter months and peaks in numbers of mature individuals during the summer months. Reproductive output increased with body size in H. cookii, as larger females produced more eggs and larger males transferred more sperm than their smaller counterparts. Ovaries matured prior to the terminal/pubertal moult (anecdysis) and, in multiparous females, in synchrony with brood development, allowing females to produce broods in quick succession, maximising their reproductive output in their short life span (approximately 12-18 months, 6 months as an adult). Incubation duration of broods decreased as seawater temperature increased, suggesting that temperature is the primary cause of the seasonal population cycling. Sperm storage allowed females to produce at least 4 fertilised broods without re-mating. Some sperm mixing in the spermathecae appeared to occur and the ventral-type structure implies last male sperm precedence. Males therefore preferentially mated with females closest to laying a new brood and guarded them longer than other females to ensure their paternity. Guarding duration varied according to the sex ratio allowing males to maximise their reproductive output.

The current explanation for the absence, or low abundance, of filter-feeding invertebrates from some rocky shores is that because of local variation in nearshore oceanographic conditions, larvae do not arrive in sufficient numbers to establish populations. One putative consequence of this is that macroalgae are able to establish dominance in areas where filter-feeders (especially mussels) do not recruit well. While macroalgae have been transplanted to mussel-dominated shores with varying success, the survival, growth and reproduction of transplanted mussels has not been tested in areas dominated by macroalgae. To determine specifically what tips the balance between shores dominated by filter-feeding invertebrates and those dominated by macroalgae, I monitored the recruitment of intertidal mussels at four sites on the Kaikoura coast: two with mussels present and two algal-dominated. No significant differences in mussel recruitment rates were found between habitats and recruitment intensity at all sites was found to be very low. Recruitment limitation is not the reason for the absence of mussels from algal dominated shores but some form of limitation does occur to reduce the number of arriving mussels. Predation effects were examined by transplanting juvenile mussels into caged, uncaged and control treatments. No significant differences in predation rates between habitats were found and transplanted mussels in open cages at all sites were removed within 3 days. Mobile fish predators appeared to be the most likely cause of this intense predation. Growth of transplanted mussels into algal and mussel habitats was found to be significantly different. Mussels grew faster in mussel dominated habitats and after 6 months in algal dominated habitats, all mussels had died. The outcome of these experiments indicates that there is a close relationship between recruitment, survival and growth which tips the balance and allows the existence of mussel beds along the Kaikoura coastline.

The Kaikoura area is a valuable feeding spot for sperm whales with the presence of a submarine canyon close to shore. Male sperm whales can be found there year around, close to the shore and exhibiting almost constant foraging activities. This thesis investigates the distribution and habitat use, both spatially and temporally, of sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus) within the Kaikoura submarine canyon, New Zealand. The primary aim was to determine which oceanographic variables and bathymetric features influence the sperm whale distribution patterns off Kaikoura. A theodolite was used to track surfacing and movement of sperm whales from a shore-based station. The accuracy of positions recorded by the theodolite was investigated by comparing theodolite measurements of an object of known position. A calibration technique was then developed as the vertical angle was not accurately determined by the theodolite. In addition to investigating the distribution of sperm whales, the daily abundance of sperm whales within the Kaikoura submarine canyon was estimated. Distance sampling and mark-resight models showed an average of 4 (SEM = 0.13) individuals present in the study area at any given time. The mark-resight technique using photo-identification was not possible from a shore-based station so a spatio-temporal model was built in order to track the identity of individuals. The model was tested using photo-identification of sperm whales collected from a boat-based station. Results showed that 88% of the modeled identifications corresponded to the photo-identification database. Sperm whales off Kaikoura were strongly associated with depth, slope and distance from the nearest coast. They were found in waters between 500 m to 1250 m deep and preferred shallower waters in winter. In spring, sperm whales occurred further from the coast, mainly in the Hikurangi Trough, north-east of the shore-based station. Generalized Additive Models (GAM) were used to identify significant oceanographic variables predicting the presence of sperm whales off Kaikoura. Models indicated that sea surface temperature (SST), chlorophylla (Chla) and distance from sea surface temperature fronts were all important parameters in predicting sperm whales presence. Results showed that sperm whales aggregated in the section of the study area with the lowest SST and near SST fronts. This study provides a detailed insight into the use of the Kaikoura submarine canyon by male sperm whales.

This study investigates the reproductive strategies of the pill-box crab, Halicarcinus cookii on the Kaikoura Peninsula, New Zealand. Various aspects essential to understanding reproductive strategies were examined including growth, population dynamics, reproductive biology and mating behaviour. H. cookii exhibits obvious sexual dimorphism such that females develop wide abdomens forming brood chambers, and males tend to grow larger than females and have larger chelipeds in relation to body size. H. cookii allocates energy into growth and reproduction in separate phases of its life cycle where growth ceases as reproductive maturity begins due to a terminal/pubertal moult. Despite the presence of ovigerous females throughout the 15 month sampling period, the population was highly seasonal, with peaks in recruitment and growth occurring primarily during the winter months and peaks in numbers of mature individuals during the summer months. Reproductive output increased with body size in H. cookii, as larger females produced more eggs and larger males transferred more sperm than their smaller counterparts. Ovaries matured prior to the terminal/pubertal moult (anecdysis) and, in multiparous females, in synchrony with brood development, allowing females to produce broods in quick succession, maximising their reproductive output in their short life span (approximately 12-18 months, 6 months as an adult). Incubation duration of broods decreased as seawater temperature increased, suggesting that temperature is the primary cause of the seasonal population cycling. Sperm storage allowed females to produce at least 4 fertilised broods without re-mating. Some sperm mixing in the spermathecae appeared to occur and the ventral-type structure implies last male sperm precedence. Males therefore preferentially mated with females closest to laying a new brood and guarded them longer than other females to ensure their paternity. Guarding duration varied according to the sex ratio allowing males to maximise their reproductive output.

The current explanation for the absence, or low abundance, of filter-feeding invertebrates from some rocky shores is that because of local variation in nearshore oceanographic conditions, larvae do not arrive in sufficient numbers to establish populations. One putative consequence of this is that macroalgae are able to establish dominance in areas where filter-feeders (especially mussels) do not recruit well. While macroalgae have been transplanted to mussel-dominated shores with varying success, the survival, growth and reproduction of transplanted mussels has not been tested in areas dominated by macroalgae. To determine specifically what tips the balance between shores dominated by filter-feeding invertebrates and those dominated by macroalgae, I monitored the recruitment of intertidal mussels at four sites on the Kaikoura coast: two with mussels present and two algal-dominated. No significant differences in mussel recruitment rates were found between habitats and recruitment intensity at all sites was found to be very low. Recruitment limitation is not the reason for the absence of mussels from algal dominated shores but some form of limitation does occur to reduce the number of arriving mussels. Predation effects were examined by transplanting juvenile mussels into caged, uncaged and control treatments. No significant differences in predation rates between habitats were found and transplanted mussels in open cages at all sites were removed within 3 days. Mobile fish predators appeared to be the most likely cause of this intense predation. Growth of transplanted mussels into algal and mussel habitats was found to be significantly different. Mussels grew faster in mussel dominated habitats and after 6 months in algal dominated habitats, all mussels had died. The outcome of these experiments indicates that there is a close relationship between recruitment, survival and growth which tips the balance and allows the existence of mussel beds along the Kaikoura coastline.

My dissertation research focused on the behavior, movement patterns, and foraging ecology of dusky dolphins (Lagenorhynchus obscurus) off the east coast of New Zealand's South Island. Information on growth, morphometrics, parasites and life history was also collected. Movement patterns and foraging behavior of New Zealand dusky dolphins were much different from those of dusky dolphins observed off the Argentine coast by Bernd Wursig, the only other study of dusky dolphin behavior. Unlike the Argentine dolphins, which cooperatively herd anchovy to the surface and contain them there for feeding, New Zealand dusky dolphins behave and forage more like Hawaiian spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris). In summer and fall, New Zealand dusky dolphins remain near shore in morning and early afternoon hours, then move into deeper water with greatly increased activity levels in late afternoon. In winter and spring they remain farther from shore at all times of day, are found in somewhat larger groups, and appear to travel along shore more often than in other seasons. In summer, dive times of radio-tagged dolphins also varied on a daily cycle, most long dives occurring during crepuscular and night periods. Stomach contents of incidentally-netted and beachcast dolphins contained primarily a demersal fish and a few types of mesopelagic fishes and squid. Acoustic surveys along the east coast of South Island show a dense layer of mesopelagic fishes and squid that move to within 50-100 m of the surface at night. Like Hawaiian spinners, New Zealand dusky dolphins feed primarily on prey in and associated with the vertically migrating layer, probably as a means of increasing foraging efficiency. External measurements of L. obscurus specimens were analyzed using canonical variate analysis, which revealed measurements useful in discrimination of age/sex classes, including dorsal fin dimensions, and positioning of dorsal fin and flipper insertions. Tooth-section age analysis of specimens allowed construction of growth curves; life span maximum was about 35 years. The very large size of active testes (over 1 kg each) during summer breeding represents a large proportion of total body weight. Along with observations of group composition variability, this suggests a promiscuous mating system and a fluid, extended-group social system.

This thesis analyses research into the evolution and adaptation of the communities in Rotorua and Kaikoura by using a complex systems perspective. This perspective requires that the analyst look beyond the obvious impacts of tourism such as employment, crowding, and congestion, to the processes that underlie the experiences of local people in relation to tourism. The configuration of the destination, the flows of people in the area, the visitor types and the ratio of hosts to guests all influence a community's interactions with tourists. In small destinations, the effect of host interactions with guests is potentially much greater than is the case in larger destinations. However, in using a complex systems perspective to analyse the effects of tourism on these two destinations, it becomes clear that the impacts of tourism are more than just the impacts of tourists. The impacts of tourism are intertwined with the processes of trust, leadership and decision making occurring both within the community and within the wider regional and national socio-economic systems. As such, local perceptions of tourism are associated with history, geography, local politics and local social processes. As concepts, the meanings of both 'tourism' and 'community' emerge from the experiences people have, and the associations that they make with the two terms. Thus, the meaning of both 'tourism' and 'community' are idiosyncratic and locally defined. Each term means different things to residents in Rotorua and Kaikoura, and each affects how residents perceive tourism in their respective towns. For example, the associations that people make between historical events and processes such as restructuring are quite different in each of the two communities. In Rotorua, tourism is seen as a source of stability, as a phenomenon that confers a higher level of perceived control on the community. In Kaikoura, tourism is seen as a source of change and it confers a lesser sense of perceived control on the community overall. Likewise, the relationship between the local council and the community underlies the sense of security people feel about local decision making processes. This relationship is mediated by a range of processes including the effort that the council put into communicating with community members, the leadership shown by the council, the way in which they facilitate community visioning processes, which then provide a basis for both leadership and decision making. Underlying these processes are community processes of rivalry, competition, cooperation, labelling and stereotyping that all affect the levels of trust that the community have in those around them. Community cohesion (which is not the same as community agreement) underlies a community's ability to work together to manage tourism. Thus using a complex systems approach to analyse the impacts of tourism in two destinations has shown that there is much more to tourism than the impacts of tourists and their activities. Instead, the way the community system interacts with the tourism system gives rise to the impacts of tourism. Tourism can be usefully conceptualised as a process that is inextricably interwoven with history, politics and community interaction processes at the destination level. Perceptions of tourism reflect these processes and the understanding that local people have of them, and the level of control that they feel they have over tourism development. With little trust in local decision making processes, people have a low sense of control over how tourism development affects them. In tourism planning, therefore, it may be more effective to focus primarily on the processes by which tourism development and management occurs in the local area and to look at mitigating the effects of tourists only after building community capacity to adaptively manage tourism in their area. Communities need a sense of control over their world, and this is only undermined when experts and institutions try to advise courses of action without involving a range of community players in the process of managing tourism. Thus, government and other organisations and institutions at local level must focus on working with communities to build local capacity to manage tourism, without imposing on those communities to convince them to 'treat tourists well' or to manage their environment better, so they become more attractive as a destination.