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Keratins are a family of proteins found within human hair, skin and nails, as well as a broad variety of animal tissue. Prior research suggests hydrogel constructs of keratin and keratin derivatives exhibit several mechanical and biological properties that support their use for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Microparticle formulations of these hydrogels are an intriguing delivery vehicle for drugs and cellular payloads for tissue engineering purposes due to the ability to exploit size, surface area, loading potential and importantly, non-invasive delivery (i.e. injection) of cells and biologics. Here we examine the water-in-oil emulsion synthesis procedure to produce keratin microparticles using an oxidized keratin derivative, keratose (KOS). Analyses of particle size, microstructure, and other characterization techniques were performed. Drug loading characteristics, release kinetics, and feasibility of use in two different microparticles was subsequently investigated, first using a model-drug and later testing an antibiotic payload on bacterial cultures to validate antibacterial applications. A suspension culture technique was developed to load bone marrow-derived mesenchymyal stromal cells (BM-MSCs), testing the capacity to maintain viability and express key protein-based factors in cell growth and development. Finally, we tested the in vitro effects of cell-loaded microparticles on the L6 skeletal muscle cell line to determine potentially beneficial outcomes for skeletal muscle tissue regeneration. Largely spherical particles with a porous internal structure were obtained, displaying hydrogel properties and forming viscoelastic gels with small differences between synthesis components (solvents, crosslinkers), generating tailorable properties. The uniquely fibrous microstructure of KOS particles may lend them to applications in rapid drug release or other payload delivery wherein a high level of biocompatibility is desired. Data showed an ability to inhibit bacterial growth in the emulsion-generated system, and thereby demonstrated the potential for a keratin-based microparticle construct to be used in wound healing applications. Dense cell populations were loaded onto particles. Particles maintained cell viability, even after freeze-thaw cycling, and provided a material substrate that supported cell attachment through the formation of focal adhesions. Finally, in vitro studies show that both KOS and BM-MSCs support varying aspects of skeletal muscle development, with combinatorial treatments of cell-loaded particles conferring the greatest growth responses. / Doctor of Philosophy / Keratins and keratin hydrogels may exhibit several properties that support their use for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine applications. Microparticle formulations of these hydrogels are an intriguing delivery vehicle for payloads for tissue engineering purposes. Here we examine the water-in-oil emulsion synthesis procedure to produce keratin microparticles that were analyzed based on drug loading characteristics. A suspension culture technique was developed to load bone marrow-derived mesenchymyal stromal cells (BM-MSCs). Finally, we tested these products to determine potentially beneficial outcomes for skeletal muscle tissue regeneration. Particles with a porous structure were obtained. The microstructure of these particles may lend them to applications in drug release or other payload delivery. Data showed an ability to load and unload specific drug payloads. Dense cell populations were loaded onto particles. Finally, studies show that both keratin and BM-MSCs support skeletal muscle development, with combinatorial treatments of cell-loaded particles conferring the greatest growth responses.

Many applications in biomedicine, research, and industry require recognition agents with specificity and selectivity for their target. Protein engineering enables the design of scaffolds that can bind targets of interest while increasing their stability, and expanding the scope of applications in which these scaffolds will be useful. Repeat proteins are instrumental in a wide variety of biological processes, including the recognition of pathogen-associated molecular patterns by the immune system. A number of successes using alternative immune system repeat protein scaffolds have expanded the scope of recognition agents available for targeting glycans and glycoproteins in particular. We have analyzed the innate immune genes of a freshwater polyp and found that they contained particularly long contiguous domains with high sequence similarity between repeats in these domains. We undertook statistical design to create a binding protein based on the H. magnipapillata innate immune TPR proteins. My second research project focused on creating a protein to bind cellulose, as it is the most abundant and inexpensive source of biomass and therefore is widely considered a possible source for liquid fuel. However, processing costs have kept lignocellulosic fuels from competing commercially with starch-based biofuels. In recent years a strategy to protect processing enzymes with synergistic proteins emerged to reduce the amount of enzyme necessary for lignocellulosic biofuel production. Simultaneously, protein engineering approaches have been developed to optimize proteins for function and stability enabling the use of proteins under non-native conditions and the unique conditions required for any necessary application. We designed a consensus protein based on the carbohydrate-binding protein domain CBM1 that will bind to cellulosic materials. The resulting designed protein is a stable monomeric protein that binds to both microcrystalline cellulose and amorphous regenerated cellulose thin films. By studying small changes to the binding site, we can better understand how these proteins bind to different cellulose-based materials in nature and how to apply their use to industrial applications such as enhancing the saccharification of lignocellulosic feedstock for biofuel production. Biomaterials made from natural human hair keratin have mechanical and biochemical properties that make them ideal scaffolds for tissue engineering and wound healing. However, the extraction process leads to protein degradation and brings with it byproducts from hair, which can cause unfavorable immune responses. Recombinant keratin biomaterials are free from these disadvantages, while heterologous expression of these proteins allows us to manipulate the primary sequence. We endeavored to add an RGD sequence to facilitate cell adhesion to the recombinant keratin proteins, to demonstrate an example of useful sequence modification. / Doctor of Philosophy / Many applications in medicine and research require molecular sensors that bind their target tightly and selectively, even in complex mixtures. Mammalian antibodies are the best-studied examples of these sensors, but problems with the stability, expense, and selectivity of these antibodies have led to the development of alternatives. In the search for better sensors, repeat proteins have emerged as one promising class, as repeat proteins are relatively simple to design while being able to bind specifically and selectively to their targets. However, a drawback of commonly used designed repeat proteins is that their targets are typically restricted to proteins, while many targets of biomedical interest are sugars, such as those that are responsible for blood types. Repeat proteins from the immune system, on the other hand, bind targets of many different types. We looked at the unusual immune system of a freshwater polyp as inspiration to design a new repeat protein to recognize nonprotein targets. My second research project focused on binding cellulose, as it is the most abundant and inexpensive source of biological matter and therefore is widely considered a possible source for liquid fuel. However, processing costs have kept cellulose-based fuels from competing commercially with biofuel made from corn and other starchy plants. One strategy to lower costs relies on using helper proteins to reduce the amount of enzyme needed to break down the cellulose, as enzymes are the most expensive part of processing. We designed such a protein for this function to be more stable than natural proteins currently used. The resulting designed protein binds to multiple cellulose structures. Designing a protein from scratch also allows us to study small changes to the binding site, allowing us to better understand how these proteins bind to different cellulose-based materials in nature and how to apply their use to industrial applications. Biomaterials made from natural human hair keratin have mechanical and biochemical properties that make them ideal for tissue engineering and wound healing applications. However, the process by which these proteins are extracted from hair leads to some protein degradation and brings with it byproducts from hair, which can cause unfavorable immune responses. Making these proteins synthetically allows us to have pure starting material, and lets us add new features to the proteins, which translates into materials better tailored for their applications. We discuss here one example, in which we added a cell-binding motif to a keratin protein sequence.

No / Background Hair is degraded by the action of both dermatophytic and nondermatophytic microorganisms. The importance of understanding hair sample condition in archaeological and forensic investigation highlights the need for a detailed knowledge of the sequence of degradation in samples that have been either buried or left exposed at the ground surface. Objectives To investigate the sequence of biodegradative change to human terminal scalp hair from archaeological and forensic contexts. Methods Cut modern scalp hair from three individuals with caucasoid-type hair was inoculated with soil microorganisms through soil burial in the field and under laboratory conditions to produce experimentally degraded samples. The degraded hair fibres were subjected to detailed histological examination using a combination of high-resolution light microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and scanning electron microscopy to investigate the nature and sequence of degradative change to hair structural components. Results/discussion Degradation was found to occur first within the least structurally robust components that afford the least resistance to microbial/chemical attack. The sequence of degradation (most to least-reflecting degree of vulnerability) in the hair cuticle was as follows: (1) intercellular 6-layer (cell membrane complex); (2) endocuticle; (3) cell membrane ß-layers; (4) exocuticle; (5) epicuticle; and (6) A-layer. In the hair cortex this was as follows: (I) intercellular 6-layer (cell membrane complex); (II) cell membrane ß-layers; (III) intermacrofibrillar matrix/nuclear remnants; (IV) microfibrils; (V) intermicrofibrillar matrix; and (VI) pigment granules (the hair fibre component that was the least vulnerable to degradation). Conclusions The selective progress of degradation in the hair shaft has been charted and this provides a basis for further histological work in better understanding the condition of hair fibres derived from archaeological or forensic contexts as well as being relevant to investigation of diseased hair, in particular hair infected by dermatophytes and hair weakened by genetic hair shaft abnormalities.

The evolutionary history of mammals, when including extinct taxa, is mainly reconstructed using tooth morphology and employs terminology based on non-monotreme mammals. Although adult monotremes are edentulous, juvenile platypuses have teeth that can be compared with extinct monotremes, but terminology can be a barrier to efficient comparison to non-monotreme mammals. Deciduous teeth and thickened epithelial plates of the extant platypus, Ornithorhynchus anatinus, are sparsely figured in the literature. New imagery of those teeth and plates from high-resolution x-ray computed tomography and scanning electron microscopy contribute to the understanding of mammal evolution and the unique morphology of platypus teeth. The teeth of the juveniles are highly variable, but early-forming features (major cusps and transverse valleys) are stable enough for comparison. Transverse lophs on monotreme teeth contain complexity not reflected in cusps alone, unlike therian mammals. These differences reinforce the need for caution when applying dental terminology that originally was produced for therian mammals. New imagery highlights potential phylogenetically informative morphology in the pulp cavity and roots. As the roots of the juvenile teeth degenerate, the epithelium below the teeth thickens into epithelial plates. Structures in the epithelial plates are broadly similar to those found in the keratin plates. New images of the epithelial plates offer insight into a series of tubes concentrated under the juvenile teeth. The tubes are a continuous conduit to the plate surface and may serve a sensory function or result from the ever-growing nature of the epithelial plate. / text

O aproveitamento de dejetos industriais como fonte de insumos, apresenta além da vantagem econômica pelo uso de materiais de baixo valor comercial, um forte apelo ambiental. A presença de grande produção de resíduos orgânicos em abatedouros, como as penas de frango, leva à necessidade do desenvolvimento de tecnologias que possibilitem a sua reciclagem. As penas se constituem como os materiais queratinosos mais abundantes na natureza, e por isso, podem ser usados como material de partida para diferentes aplicações biotecnológicas, químicas e farmacêuticas. Existem na literatura vários métodos de extração de queratina das penas de frango, como as extrações por hidrólises ácidas e alcalinas, que além da desvantagem da hidrólise total da proteína, rompem também os sítios principais de reação de crosslinkings da proteína. Outros procedimentos envolvem o uso de grandes concentrações de reagentes onerosos, como o 2-mercaptoetanol e as enzimas proteolíticas. Estudo realizado por planejamento fatorial visou à extração e fragmentação da queratina, através da combinação de diferentes concentrações de sulfito de sódio, uréia e papaína. Ensaios preliminares de modificação da queratina foram conduzidos após esta extração. Temperaturas acima de 80°C, e concentrações intermediárias de uréia (3,75M) combinadas a baixas concentrações de sulfito de sódio (0,1M - 0,18M) foram os melhores parâmetros de extração. A hidrólise enzimática apresentou-se adequada somente quando combinada ao prévio tratamento químico. A combinação dos dois processos extrativos resultou em redução do tempo de reação da hidrólise enzimática. A queratina obtida apresentava tamanho de fragmentos homogêneos, ao redor de 650nm, e um grau de pureza de 72%-89% em massa seca de proteína purificada. A caracterização físico-química dos derivados da queratina demonstra a amplitude desta proteína como insumo para aplicações diversas. O estudo da inserção de grupamentos polares na molécula de queratina é feita por análise da solubilidade em diferentes solventes e por espectroscopia vibracional Raman. / The use of industrial wastes as a source of raw materials presents, besides the cost-effective advantages, an eco-friendly approach. Great amount of feather waste discharged from slaughterhouses demands the development of biotechnological alternatives for its recycling. Feather is the most keratinous material in nature and may be used for different applications in biotechnology, pharmaceutical and chemical industry. Several authors have written methods for feather keratin extraction, as acid and alkaline hydrolysis. Those methods presented disadvantages like damage to the backbone protein chain and loss of its main function as well as loss of cross linking groups. Other chemical treatments require large amounts of expensive reagents such as 2-mercaptoethanol and proteolytic enzymes. The present work comprises a factorial planning for extraction and fragmentation of feather keratin by combining sodium sulfide (0,1M 0,26M), urea (2M- 6M) and papain (0,13mg/ml). Feather keratin modification assay was conducted after protein extraction. The experiment presented satisfactory results when temperature extraction is maintained around 80° C, urea is used in an intermediate concentration (3,75M) and sodium sulfide in a low concentration(0,1M- 0,18M). Enzymatic hydrolysis is viable only after previous chemistry extraction. The combination of both treatment types resulted in a decrease of enzymatic time reaction and therefore an optimized keratin production. Extracted feather keratin presented homogenous size fragments with most particle diameters around 650nm. The percentage of proteins found was around 72%-89% compared to the total dry weight. The physicochemical characterization of feather keratin derivatives bring this protein of interest as a potencial component to renewable raw materials synthesis. Modification analysis of feather keratin was carried by qualitative solubility evaluation and vibrational spectrometry Raman.

O aproveitamento de dejetos industriais como fonte de insumos, apresenta além da vantagem econômica pelo uso de materiais de baixo valor comercial, um forte apelo ambiental. A presença de grande produção de resíduos orgânicos em abatedouros, como as penas de frango, leva à necessidade do desenvolvimento de tecnologias que possibilitem a sua reciclagem. As penas se constituem como os materiais queratinosos mais abundantes na natureza, e por isso, podem ser usados como material de partida para diferentes aplicações biotecnológicas, químicas e farmacêuticas. Existem na literatura vários métodos de extração de queratina das penas de frango, como as extrações por hidrólises ácidas e alcalinas, que além da desvantagem da hidrólise total da proteína, rompem também os sítios principais de reação de crosslinkings da proteína. Outros procedimentos envolvem o uso de grandes concentrações de reagentes onerosos, como o 2-mercaptoetanol e as enzimas proteolíticas. Estudo realizado por planejamento fatorial visou à extração e fragmentação da queratina, através da combinação de diferentes concentrações de sulfito de sódio, uréia e papaína. Ensaios preliminares de modificação da queratina foram conduzidos após esta extração. Temperaturas acima de 80°C, e concentrações intermediárias de uréia (3,75M) combinadas a baixas concentrações de sulfito de sódio (0,1M - 0,18M) foram os melhores parâmetros de extração. A hidrólise enzimática apresentou-se adequada somente quando combinada ao prévio tratamento químico. A combinação dos dois processos extrativos resultou em redução do tempo de reação da hidrólise enzimática. A queratina obtida apresentava tamanho de fragmentos homogêneos, ao redor de 650nm, e um grau de pureza de 72%-89% em massa seca de proteína purificada. A caracterização físico-química dos derivados da queratina demonstra a amplitude desta proteína como insumo para aplicações diversas. O estudo da inserção de grupamentos polares na molécula de queratina é feita por análise da solubilidade em diferentes solventes e por espectroscopia vibracional Raman. / The use of industrial wastes as a source of raw materials presents, besides the cost-effective advantages, an eco-friendly approach. Great amount of feather waste discharged from slaughterhouses demands the development of biotechnological alternatives for its recycling. Feather is the most keratinous material in nature and may be used for different applications in biotechnology, pharmaceutical and chemical industry. Several authors have written methods for feather keratin extraction, as acid and alkaline hydrolysis. Those methods presented disadvantages like damage to the backbone protein chain and loss of its main function as well as loss of cross linking groups. Other chemical treatments require large amounts of expensive reagents such as 2-mercaptoethanol and proteolytic enzymes. The present work comprises a factorial planning for extraction and fragmentation of feather keratin by combining sodium sulfide (0,1M 0,26M), urea (2M- 6M) and papain (0,13mg/ml). Feather keratin modification assay was conducted after protein extraction. The experiment presented satisfactory results when temperature extraction is maintained around 80° C, urea is used in an intermediate concentration (3,75M) and sodium sulfide in a low concentration(0,1M- 0,18M). Enzymatic hydrolysis is viable only after previous chemistry extraction. The combination of both treatment types resulted in a decrease of enzymatic time reaction and therefore an optimized keratin production. Extracted feather keratin presented homogenous size fragments with most particle diameters around 650nm. The percentage of proteins found was around 72%-89% compared to the total dry weight. The physicochemical characterization of feather keratin derivatives bring this protein of interest as a potencial component to renewable raw materials synthesis. Modification analysis of feather keratin was carried by qualitative solubility evaluation and vibrational spectrometry Raman.

Submitted by Mariana Dornelles Vargas (marianadv) on 2015-05-08T17:15:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 atividade_enzimatica.pdf: 370318 bytes, checksum: 13877c7be4e9bb165549706d2f51bf0e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-08T17:15:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 atividade_enzimatica.pdf: 370318 bytes, checksum: 13877c7be4e9bb165549706d2f51bf0e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-02-28 / Banco Santander / Banespa / Micro-organismos queratinolíticos são encontrados em diversos ambientes, já havendo sido descritos diversos fungos e bactérias. Entre as enzimas microbianas que vem ganhando destaque estão as queratinases, responsáveis pela degradação da queratina. O objetivo desse trabalho foi isolar e identificar micro-organismos produtores de queratinases a partir de penas em decomposição provenientes de pinguins (Pygoscelis antarctica e Pygoscelis papua) da Ilha Rei George, Antártica. O cultivo dos micro-organismos foi realizado em placas de ágar farinha de pena (AFP) a temperatura ambiente (± 25 e 8 ºC) e posteriormente, foram armazenadas na geladeira (8 ºC). Os micro-organismos selecionados foram identificados a partir de análises moleculares, através da obtenção da sequência do gene 16S do rDNA. Para avaliação inicial do potencial proteolítico, os isolados foram inoculados no meio Ágar leite (AL) e incubados por 7 dias nas temperaturas de 8 ºC, por uma semana, a 25 ºC e 37 ºC, por até 48 horas, sob os pHs 5,0, 7,0, 9,0 e 11,0. Aqueles capazes de formar halos em AL formam selecionados para os testes enzimáticos sob o substrato de caldo farinha de pena (CFP). Para a determinação da atividade queratinolítica foi utilizado o substrato azoqueratina. O isolado identificado através do gene 16S como Lysobacter sp. foi capaz de crescer no meio AFP como única fonte de carbono e nitrogênio e apresentou também a formação de halos em AL e, produzindo queratinases quando inoculado no meio CFP e incubado 8 ºC e 20 °C, pH 7,0. Este é um dos primeiros trabalhos a confirmar a existência de bactérias produtoras de proteases queratinoliticas no Ambiente Antártico, as quais mostram-se ativas nas faixas de temperaturas abaixo de 25 ºC. / Keratinolitic micro-organisms are found in diverse environments, having already been described between fungi and bacteria. Among the microbial enzymes that have been gaining prominence are the keratinases, responsible for the keratin degradation. The aim of this study is to isolate and to identify micro-organisms producing keratinases from decomposing feathers of penguins (Pygoscelis antarctica and Pygoscelis papua) from King George Island, Antarctica. The cultivation of micro-organisms was performed on Ágar feather meal plates at room temperature (± 25 °C and 8 ºC) and, afterwards, they were stored in the refrigerator (8 °C). The selected micro-organisms were identified through molecular analysis, by obtaining the sequence of the gene 16S from rDNA. For an initial assessment of the proteolytic potential, the isolates were inoculated on milk-agar (MA) and incubated for 7days at 8 °C for one week, at 25 °C and 37 °C for up to 48 hours, on pHs 5,0,7,0, 9,0 and 11,0. Those able to form halos on MA were selected for enzyme tests on feather meal broth substrate. For keratinolitic determination azokeratin substrate was used. The isolate identified through gene 16S as Lysobacter sp. was capable of growing on agar feather meal as the sole carbon and nitrogen source, and it showed the formation of halos on MA, and produced keratinase when inoculated on feather meal broth substrate and incubated at 8 °C and 20 °C, pH 7.0. This is one of the first studies to confirm the existence of keratinolitic protease producing bacteria in the Antarctic environment, which are active in temperatures below 25 °C.

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Includes bibliography / vii, 161, [208] leaves : ill ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, Dept. of Biochemistry, 1985