The measurement of pain has had a growing importance in animals for both privately owned animals and those animals involved in clinical research. Lameness is considered to be 1 aspect of the pain experience. The ability of a veterinarian to assess lameness during a routine orthopedic examination can be difficult given the short amount of time in which the clinician can observe the animal, and the fact that the animal is in a stressful environment. Thus, the input of the owner concerning the animal's well-being over an extended time period may be extremely useful to the clinician in assessing the degree of lameness of the animal. It was the purpose of this study to establish an instrument that was both repeatable and valid in assessing the degree of lameness. The instrument used was a questionnaire containing 39 questions in a visual analog scale format. A force platform was used as the gold-standard for detecting mechanical lameness. Peak vertical, cranial-caudal, and their associated impulses were forces used to determine lameness, along with maximum slope in some cases. A test-retest measure of repeatability was conducted on a subset of 19 dogs that were confirmed to have less than a 10% change in vertical peak force. Nineteen of the 39 questions were found to be repeatable based on a Spearman rank correlation. These 19 questions were then used as predictor variables in several multiple regression models which predicted force plate measurements. The result was 3 different models each containing 7 independent variables that were thought to be valid representations of the forces measured (vertical peak, vertical impulse, and propulsion peak forces). Each reduced model was found to fit the data as well as the full model containing all 19 of the repeatable questions. The composite of 11 questions from the 3 different models was used to calculate a total score. This total score was found to be significantly correlated with force plate measurements. These 11 questions should be useful to a clinician in detecting the degree of lameness in the dog.

The forces and pressures applied to the hooves of Friesian cattle during gait were investigated using a combined force plate and pedobaroscope. Studies included those concerned with changes in loads and pressure with increasing live weight, flooring surface, stages of pregnancy and differences in gait with lameness. The forefeet carried significantly greater loads (i.e. equivalent to 60 per cent of body weight) than the hind feet (i.e. equivalent to 50 per of body weight), but no difference in load was observed between contralateral limbs. In most cases no significant difference was observed in contact area between feet. However with increasing live weight hoof-ground contact area increased at a rate exceeding that expected from allometry. The obtained relationship between area (A) and live weight (m) was A = 10.96 m<SUP>0.96</SUP>. Pressure did not increase significantly with live weight. No significant decrease in contact area or increase in pressure was observed with a simulated slot, of 12 mm width, in the floor. During pregnancy the load distribution did not change significantly, though pressures were observed to increase slightly on all feet in the pre-partum period. The vertical ground reaction and horizontal fore and aft force-time curves of lame cows were different to those obtained from non-lame cows. The force-time curves of the non-lame limbs of the lame cattle were also modified. It was concluded that the heel region was compressed of the inter-digital space increased to increase the solear ground contact with increasing load, to reduce applied pressure. This would reduce the risk of pressure-induced injury and lameness. The load distribution during pregnancy did not explain the higher incidence of lameness on the hind feet at this time and other factors may be implicated. Changes in applied forces on limbs with lameness may act to alleviate pain. The forces applied to the non-lame limbs may compensate for the change in load on the lame foot or act to further alleviate pain. Further work is suggested to relate the risk of injury and lameness on different floor types to the applied loads and pressures.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The objective of the present study was to determine the duration and efficacy of local analgesia produced by bupivacaine, lidocaine and ropivacaine used to block the palmar digital (PD) nerve. Nine adult horses underwent a thorough physical examination and evaluation using wireless motion sensors to determine the absence of signs of lameness. Galvanized steel clamps were used to induce lameness. The horses were randomly allocated in a crossover design (bupivacaine 7,5 mg/ml, lidocaine 30 mg, ropivacaine 11,25 mg). The objective lameness evaluations were recorded immediately before administration of the anesthetic on the digital palmar nerve, and then at 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90,120, 150, 180, 210, 240 and 300 minutes after the block. The evaluation of mean improvement in lameness after the block was performed using the Wilcoxon test (P> 0.05). The relative lameness severity (RLS) observed after the induction of lameness was 2,4 times the threshold (6mm) and the intensity of the induced lameness was similar between horses (coefficient of variance = 55,26%). Bupivacaine, lidocaine and ropivacaine were effective in blocking at least 75% of the lameness induced by clamps, 5 minutes after the block, the tested drugs improved more than 60% of the lameness. With 7.5 mg bupivacaine improved lameness in more than 90% between 10 and 60 minutes after blocking. Lidocaine (30 mg), resulted in maximal analgesia between 10 and 30 minutes after blocking and the lameness improvement was higher than 69%. Administration of 11.25 mg ropivacaine was able to improve lameness more than 86% between 10 and 180 minutes. The doses of bupivacaine and ropivacaine used in this study were effective in blocking lameness induced by clamps. The dose of 30 mg of lidocaine was not able to completely reverse the lameness. At 5 minutes of blocking, the local anesthetics tested had produced a significant improvement in lameness. Objective analysis of lameness showed a longer analgesic effect on the PD nerve block using ropivacaine than bupivacaine and lidocaine. / O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar o início, a duração e a eficácia da analgesia local produzida pela lidocaína, bupivacaína e ropivacaína no bloqueio do nervo digital palmar. Foram selecionados nove cavalos adultos submetidos a exame físico e avaliação utilizando sensores inerciais para avaliar a ausência de sinais de claudicação. Braçadeiras de aço galvanizado foram utilizadas para induzir claudicação. Os cavalos foram alocados aleatoriamente em um modelo crossover (bupivacaína 7,5 mg, lidocaína 30 mg, ropivacaína 11,35 mg). As análises objetivas de claudicação foram registradas antes da administração perineural dos fármacos no nervo digital palmar e em seguida aos 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, 90,120, 150, 180, 210, 240 e 300 minutos após o bloqueio. A avaliação das médias de estimativa de melhora da claudicação após o bloqueio foi realizada através do teste de Wilcoxon (P>0,05). A severidade da claudicação relativa (SCR) observada após a indução de claudicação foi 2,4 vezes o limiar (6 mm) e a intensidade da claudicação induzida foi semelhante entre os cavalos (coeficiente de variação = 55,26%). Bupivacaína, lidocaína e ropivacaína foram eficientes em bloquear acima de 75% da claudicação induzida experimentalmente, 5 minutos após o bloqueio todas as drogas testadas apresentavam melhora na claudicação superior a 60%. Utilizando 7,5 mg de bupivacaína a estimativa de melhora na claudicação foi superior a 90% entre 10 e 60 minutos após o bloqueio. Com 30 mg de lidocaína a analgesia máxima ocorreu entre 10 e 30 minutos após o bloqueio e a estimativa de melhora na claudicação foi superior a 69%. A administração de 11,25 mg de ropivacaína bloqueou a claudicação em mais de 86%, entre 10 e 180 minutos após o bloqueio. As doses de bupivacaína e ropivacaína utilizadas neste estudo foram eficientes em bloquear a claudicação induzida por braçadeiras. A dose de 30 mg de lidocaína não foi eficiente em bloquear totalmente a claudicação. Cinco minutos após o bloqueio todos os anestésicos locais apresentavam melhora na estimativa de claudicação. As análises objetivas de claudicação mostraram efeito analgésico mais longo no bloqueio do nervo digital palmar da ropivacaína do que da bupivacaína e lidocaína.

Call number: LD2668 .T4 1978 P38 / Master of Science

Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / David E. Anderson / Lameness in cattle is a common cause of pain however there are no approved cattle analgesic drugs. Flunixin meglumine, the only non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug approved for use in adult dairy cattle, is labeled for pyrexia associated with bovine respiratory disease, endotoxemia, acute mastitis and associated inflammation. There is currently a lack of objective data regarding the analgesic efficacy of flunixin meglumine in cattle. The objectives of this study were to characterize an amphotericin B-induced lameness model and to ascertain the analgesic effects of flunixin meglumine using multimodal assessment. We hypothesized that flunixin meglumine would provide analgesia as evidenced by increased activity levels as well as increased exerted force and contact area on the affected limb in flunixin treated steers. Amphotericin B-induced synovitis arthritis was induced in the distal interphalangeal joint of 10 dairy steers. The cattle were randomly allocated between a treatment and a control group. The treatment steers received flunixin meglumine at the time of arthritis induction and at 12 hours post-induction. Accelerometric, gait, pressure mat, vital parameter and plasma cortisol data were gathered in the pre and post-induction phases. The data were analyzed using linear mixed models with treatment and time designated as fixed effects. Induction of amphotericin B arthritis produced a moderate, transient lameness. Control steers were more than twice as likely to be lame as flunixin meglumine treated steers using visual lameness assessment (92.2% ± 8.1 versus 40.7% ± 2.5) (P<0.03). Flunixin meglumine treated steers placed significantly greater force and contact area on the affected foot. Control steers also placed significantly greater force, impulse and contact area on the paired claw as compared to control steers. Flunixin treated steers spent considerably less time in recumbency than their control counterparts, particularly in the immediate post-induction time period. This is one of the first studies to document the character of an amphotericin B-induced synovitis arthritis model in cattle as well as to document analgesic efficacy of a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug in an induced lameness model. Flunixin meglumine was efficacious in providing analgesia in an amphotericin B-induced lameness model in dairy steers.

Master of Science / Department of Clinical Sciences / Warren L. Beard / The flexion test is routinely used in lameness and pre-purchase examinations. There is no accepted standard for duration of flexion or evidence that interpretation of results would differ with different durations of flexion. We hypothesized there would be no difference in interpretation of full hindlimb flexion for 5 or 60 seconds. Video recordings of lameness examinations of 34 client owned horses were performed that included: baseline lameness, upper hindlimb flexion for 60 seconds, and flexion of the same leg for 5 seconds. Videos were edited to blind reviewers to the hypothesis being tested. The baseline lameness video from each horse was paired with each flexion to make 2 pairs of videos for each case. Twenty video pairs were repeated to assess intra-observer repeatability. Fifteen experienced clinicians reviewed the videos and graded the response to flexion as either positive or negative. Potential associations between the duration of flexion and the likelihood of a positive flexion test were evaluated using generalized linear mixed models. A kappa value was calculated to assess the degree of intra-observer agreement on the repeated videos. Full hindlimb flexion of 60 seconds was more likely to be called positive than flexion of 5 seconds (p<0.0001), with the likelihood of the same interpretation 74% of the time. The first flexion performed was more likely to be called positive than subsequent flexions (p=0.029). Intra-assessor agreement averaged 75% with κ=0.49. Full hindlimb flexion of a horse for 5 seconds did not yield the same result as 60 seconds.

Thesis (M. Agr. Sc.)--University of Queensland, 2002. / Includes bibliographical references.

Lameness in dairy cattle is one of the primary welfare concerns in the industry. The objectives of this thesis were to investigate the use of an accelerometer for early detection of lameness, to describe the etiology and temporal changes in hoof lesion prevalence, and to assess treatments for two types of lesions that commonly cause lameness. The Pedometer Plus™ was first validated for lying behaviour and activity measurements and determined to accurately collect data on lying and on leg movement in the cow. This system was then used to determine if changes in activity and lying behaviour could be observed during presence of hoof lesions or during lameness. Lame cows decreased their activity and increased daily lying duration compared to non-lame cows. Activity, lying duration, and lying bouts were found to be altered with particular hoof lesions compared to cows without painful lesions. Lying duration was increased in periods where cows had painful lesions compared to periods when cows had no painful lesions present on their hooves. Digital dermatitis and sole ulcers were the most commonly observed painful hoof lesions. Presence of these lesions increased the odds of a cow having that lesion later in life. Additionally, the odds of developing a sole ulcer were higher in cows that had previously had hemorrhages. A randomized clinical trial compared the use of a tetracycline hydrochloride paste to use of a bandage or no treatment in digital dermatitis lesions. Lesion healing rates did not differ between the two treatments, while both were more effective than the negative control. An algometer was used to quantify pain at the lesion site and to verify decreasing pain responses between active, healing and healed lesions. The effect of therapeutic hoof block application on sound dairy cows was assessed, with lactating dairy cows randomly assigned to receive a block (n=10) or no treatment (n=10). Block application had little effect on the activity, lying behaviour and production of sound lactating dairy cattle. Application was associated with increased gait abnormality. These results provide potential dairy cattle welfare improvement through early identification and treatment of hoof lesions and lameness. / Dairy Farmers of Ontario, NSERC, OMAFRA, DairyGen, SAE Afikim

No description available.

Lameness continues to cause significant problems in profitability, productivity, and animal welfare in the feedlot industry. Toe tip necrosis syndrome (TTNS) is a new name for a previously reported condition. By definition, TTNS is separation of the apical white line with tissue necrosis and clinical lameness. This definition includes complications such as pedal (P3) osteitis, middle (P2) and proximal (P1) phalangeal osteomyelitis, tendonitis, tenosynovitis, cellulitis, and embolic pneumonia. Anecdotal experiences from practitioners report this lameness in feedlot cattle will develop within weeks after feedlot entry. Often the hindlimbs, specifically the lateral claw, are affected where a separation of the dorsal wall and sole will be noticed. Secondary infections will progress deeper into the foot and become systemic. Unfortunately, despite treatment, these animals can become very lame and will need to be euthanized. The overall objective of this project was to describe the epidemiology of TTNS in western Canadian feedlot cattle. The specific objectives were 1) to use clinical examinations, imaging modalities, and necropsy findings to aid in description, classification, and characterization of TTNS lesions, 2) to describe the epidemiology of TTNS in feedlot cattle, and 3) to evaluate risk factors for TTNS. Upon further investigation into this arrival related condition it became apparent that there were many different descriptors: P3 necrosis, toe abscess, apicus necrotica, apical pedal bone necrosis or toe necrosis. These names and descriptors of toe tip lesions were based on anecdotal experiences and previous case reports. As a result, traditional epidemiological approaches that included field investigations, clinical and necropsy examinations were implemented to identify, characterize and describe this condition. Based on clinical findings, imaging modalities, and necropsy specimens examined during September to December 2012, inclusive, a more specific name and descriptive case definition were introduced. TTNS descriptive epidemiology was described by use of a retrospective database analysis from Feedlot Health Management Services (FHMS) with 702 veterinarian confirmed TTNS cases by necropsy examination. From this database, there were 30% (210/702) of necropsy cases treated for TTNS and 70% of cases (492/702) that were not treated. Of those animals treated, the mean and standard deviation (median) interval from feedlot arrival to first treatment was 18.9 ±1.7 d (12 d). The mean (standard deviation) days on feed until death from TTNS was the earliest in grass-fed calves (32.4 ± 22.1 d), followed by auction-derived (40.6 ± 40.6 d), ranch direct (44.1 ± 53.1 d), and back-grounded calves (69.0 ± 75.6 d) (P < 0.001). Yearlings were on feed for a mean (standard deviation) days of 37.1 ± 32.0 d when compared to calves at 49.5 ± 57.0 d before death (P < 0.001). The greatest proportion of deaths occurred from September to November. There were 96.2% (1,832/1,904) of lots without one case of TTNS and 3.8% (72/1,904) of lots had one or more TTNS cases. A prospective case-control study to identify TTNS risk factors consisted of 148 total necropsy submissions (82 cases, 66 controls) from three feedlot veterinary practices and 16 feedlots during October 2012 to January 2013, inclusive. Confirmation of feet samples by the principal investigator at the Western College of Veterinary Medicine reduced the total to 135 animals: 67 cases and 68 controls. The measure of agreement (kappa) on classification of TTNS cases and controls between the veterinary practice and WCVM was 0.778 (P < 0.001). Bacterial culture results revealed that 75% of pure isolates in TTNS cases were attributed to Escherichia coli, Streptococcus spp., Trueperella pyogenes, Fusobacterium necrophorum. TTNS cases were 3.8 times more likely than control animals to have BVDV isolated (95% CI 1.7-8.5; P < 0.001). TTNS animals were 2.2 times more likely than control animals to have histopathological evidence of vasculitis (95% CI 1.0-4.6; P = 0.04). BVDV samples were 11.2 times more likely to show histopathological evidence of vasculitis than non-BVDV samples (95% CI 4.7-27.0; P < 0.001). A decreased difference was found in sole thickness at the toe tip (P < 0.001). There was no evidence of pedal bone rotation between case and control animals (P = 0.15). In summary, TTNS is a specific term for apical white line separation with tissue necrosis and clinical lameness. A practitioner's field diagnosis of TTNS based on apical white line separation and tissue necrosis is accurate on clinical signs alone. TTNS is a transport or arrival related condition in feedlot cattle that has a propensity for cases to cluster together. Pure bacterial isolates provide an understanding of the pathogens responsible for TTNS and that environmental pathogens contribute to an ascending infection. BVDV, vasculitis and apical sole thickness were risk factors associated with TTNS; however, their exact role requires further investigation.