Este estudo investigou a ecologia de vespas parasitóides ocorrentes em galhadores Schismatodiplosis lantanae Rübsaamen, 1916 (Cecidomyiidae) em folhas de Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae). Dessa forma, o primeiro artigo trata da ecologia comportamental da vespa parasitóide Torymus sp. (Torymidae, Hymenoptera), onde foi avaliado como as fêmeas dessa espécie defendem seu recurso de oviposição no hospedeiro. Foi analisado mudanças no comportamento devido à presença de outra fêmea coespecífica no local, ser residente do recurso, tamanho das vespas e número e tamanho das galhas através de filmagens dos experimentos realizados em laboratório. Com esse trabalho observou-se que fêmeas mudam seu comportamento quando estão na presença de um competidor em um território com hospedeiros. A estratégia de ataque foi através da ameaça, na qual suas antenas e asas são levantadas para expulsar o competidor do local. A probabilidade de haver ataques a fêmeas coespecíficas depende do tempo prévio de exploração da galha e da permanência na folha. O interesse no hospedeiro pelas invasoras foi a principal causa de conflitos com a residente. O segundo artigo trata da diversidade de vespas parasitóides e de um ciclo parasita-hospedeiro observado no período de um ano no sistema de L. camara. Foram encontradas nove espécies de vespas parasitóides, divididas em quatro famílias. Ocorreu um ciclo no parasitismo das espécies de vespas sobre seu hospedeiro no ano amostrado, podendo ser observado que são mais elevadas nos meses de Julho a Janeiro e a sobrevivência do hospedeiro foi maior nos meses de Fevereiro a Maio. As estratégias comportamentais de fêmeas de uma vespa parasitóide em relação a seus hospedeiros foram analisadas, bem como um sistema composto de diversas espécies parasitóides e sua variação no tempo. Estas observações podem contribuir para um melhor entendimento da ecologia comportamental e do padrão temporal das vespas parasitoides, e também para futuros programas de controle biológico mais eficientes. / We investigated the ecology of parasitoid wasps attacking Schismatodiplosis lantanae Rübsaamen, 1916 (Cecidomyiidae) galls on leaves of Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae). The first article discusses the behavioral ecology of the parasitoid wasp Torymus sp. (Torymidae, Hymenoptera), reporting how their females defend oviposition resources on the hosts, changing their behavior due to the presence of a conspecific female in the patch. The identity of the wasp (resident or intruder) on the resource, female size and number and size of galls in the patch were factors studied through analysis of the behaviors revealed by video recordings of the laboratory experiments. Females change their behavior in the presence of a competitor in a territory with hosts. The strategy was to threat, raising their antennae and wings to expel the competitor of the patch. The probability of an attack on a conspecific females depended on the host exploitation time and time spent on the galled leaf. Interest in host by intruders was the main cause for conflicts. The second article reports the diversity of parasitoid wasps and a host-parasite cycle during one year period in the L. camara leaf galls system. Nine parasitoid wasp species were found, divided in four families. A cycle between parasitism and host survival was found during the sampling period. Wasp species are more abundant from July to January and host survival higher from February to May. Behavioral strategies of parasitoid wasp females toward their hosts and conspecifics have been elucidated, with the system composed of different parasitoid wasp species apparently going through an annual cycle of parasitism rate. These observations may contribute to a better understanding of parasitoid behavioral ecology and host-parasitoid dynamics, enabling more efficient future biological control programs.

L'objectif de ce travail était d'étudier les interactions entre une plante à phytoremédiatrice ?, Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), le ver de terre, Pontoscolex corethrurus (Glossoscolecidae) et les microorganismes telluriques d'un sol pollué au plomb. Dans un premier temps, il apparaît que dans les sols contaminés, la présence de ver conduit à un accroissement de la biomasse des parties aériennes et racinaires des plantes ainsi qu'à une augmentation de l'absorption de plomb. La caractérisation physico-chimique des agrégats racinaires a montré que l'activité des vers augmente le taux de matière organique, la capacité d'échange cationique ainsi que l'azote total, le potassium total et disponible. De plus, la présence des vers augmente certaines activités enzymatiques de la rhizosphère. La croissance accrue de L. camara pourrait résulter de ces différentes actions. L'action des vers de terre sur les plantes se ferait via les communautés microbiennes telluriques. Ainsi, la biomasse des microorganismes, bactéries et champignons, des agrégats racinaires augmente en présence de vers. La PCR-DGGE n'a pas permis de mettre en évidence de modifications de la structure taxonomique des communautés bactériennes sous l'influence du Pb et/ou du vers, par contre l'analyse des profils physiologiques par plaques Biolog montre clairement une diversification fonctionnelle bactérienne. Les communautés fongiques voient, elles, leur diversité taxonomique, augmenter sous l'action des vers. La restructuration des populations microbiennes, en présence de vers, des agrégats racinaires élaborés par les plantes en milieu pollué au plomb est l'élément déterminant pour la compréhension de l'impact de P. corethrurus sur la croissance et la phytoremédiation de L. camara. L'association de ces deux organismes aurait donc un potentiel considérable pour le traitement de sites industriels pollués au plomb / The objective of this work was to study the interactions between phytoremediating plant Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), the earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus (Glossocolecidae) and microorganisms in soil contaminated with lead. Initially, it appears that in the contaminated soil, the presence of earthworm leads to an increase in the biomass of root and aerial parts of plants and increased absorption of lead. The physico-chemical characterization of root-aggregates showed that the activity of earthworms increases the rate of organic matter, cation exchange capacity, total nitrogen, total and available potassium. Moreover, the presence of earthworms increases certain enzymatic activities in the rhizosphere. The increased growth of L. camara could result from these different actions. The action of earthworm on plants would be through terrestrial microbial-communities. Thus, the biomass of microorganisms, bacteria and fungi, of root-aggregates increase in the presence of earthworms. By PCR-DGGE, we were unable to demonstrate differences in taxonomic diversity of the bacteria community but the analysis of physiological profiles with Biolog plates showed that the activities of earthworm enhance the functional diversity of soil bacteria. In other hand, the restructuring of fungal taxonomy has been clearly observed by the activity of earthworm. All changes observed can explain increased growth of plants and improved phytoextraction of heavy metal. Finally, the study underlines the role of the earthworms on the growth and the phytoextraction efficiency of the plants. So, the combination of earthworm P. corethrurus and plant L. camara could be considerable potential for the treatment of industrial sites polluted with lead

O mimetismo é uma adaptação onde duas ou mais espécies, que podem pertencer a grupos taxonômicos distintos, assemelham-se no padrão geral de cor e/ou forma e que devido a isso são confundidas por um outro organismo. Os tipos clássicos de mimetismo, Batesiano e Mülleriano, nem sempre se ajustam a estudos com flores; esta limitação, todavia, não afeta o chamado Sistema Tripartido. O Sistema Tripartido foi proposto originalmente por Wolfgang Wickler (1968) e aperfeiçoado por Richard I. Vane Right (1976); o sistema é formado por três elementos constantes: modelo (S1), o mímico (S2) e operador (O – o qual Wickler originalmente representou como R – receptor de sinal). O presente estudo concentra-se em três plantas que coexistem na restinga do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, as quais mostram um padrão convergente na coloração de suas flores. As espécies são Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), ambas produtoras de néctar, e Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]), aparentemente não produtora de néctar e considerado o suposto mímico do sistema. O trabalho de campo foi realizado entre a primavera de 2004 e verão de 2006. Para tanto, foram avaliados aspectos concernentes ao número e identificação dos polinizadores potenciais (especialmente borboletas – excepcionalmente, uma ou duas espécies de mariposas foram encontradas, porém mostrando baixa contribuição); às fenofases de floração e frutificação das três espécies. Também foram realizados experimentos de cruzamento em E. fulgens (autopolinização espontânea e induzida, geitonogamia, xenogamia); remoção de polinários de E. fulgens em relação à distância da fonte de néctar (L. camara), bem como uma descrição da anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens para verificar a existência de tecido produtor de néctar. Dentre as 28 espécies de lepidópteros diurnos que foram registradas, destacam-se Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae) e Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae), as quais visitam as três espécies de plantas. Não houve sincronia de floração entre as fenofases, ou seja, não houve diferença estatística entre A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara. Os experimentos de cruzamento mostraram que E. fulgens é polinizador-dependente. A remoção de polinários de E. fulgens foi baixa, talvez porque a oferta de flores seja alta. Os testes sobre a anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens sugerem que não há produção de néctar (Anexo 2). Estes resultados sugerem que A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara, no cenário ecológico do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, não constituem um complexo mimético. Porém, isto não invalida a possibilidade de que estas plantas realmente constituam um sistema mimético, considerando-se que o presente estudo foi realizado dentro de um curto espaço de tempo, enquanto que estudos a respeito de processos evolutivos requerem maior tempo de observações. / Mimicry is an adaptation where two or more species which can belong to different taxonomic groups, are similar in color pattern and/or behavior, and that for this reason are not discriminated by a third species. Classical Batesian and Müllerian mimicry are not generally useful to describe examples of plant mimicry; however, the so-called tripartite mimicry system does not suffer this restriction. The Tripartite System was first envisaged by Wolfgang Wickler (1968) and latter elaborated and expanded by Richard I. Vane-Wright (1976); the system is based in three constant elements, the model (S1), the mimic (S2) and the operator (O – which Wickler originally represented as R – signal receiver). The present study concentrates on three plants that coexist at Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, RS, and that show a convergence in the pattern of flower color. The species are Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), both nectar producers and Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]) which does not produce nectar and that is considered the mimic in the system. Field work has been done between the spring of 2004 and the summer of 2006. The variables studied were the number and the identity of the potential pollinators (specifically butterflies – exceptionally one or two moths were found but with little contribution), flower and fruit phenology in the three species. Experiments in the field were conducted in E. fulgens to ascertain the mating system of this plant (spontaneous and induced self-pollination, geitonogamy and xenogamy). Moreover, to complement the test of hypothesis of mimicry of E. fulgens in relation to L. camara, the frequency of removal of pollinaria in the orchid were estimated according to the distance from the nectar source. A description of the anatomy of the floral nectary of E. fulgens was also made, to test for nectar production. In the whole, 28 species of diurnal Lepidoptera were observed visiting the flowers of at least two of the three species of plants; among them, Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae), and Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae) did so for the three species of plants. As for the synchrony in flower phenology, there was no statistical significance for any combination of plants. The experiments for mating system of E. fulgens showed that this orchid is pollinator-dependent. Pollinaria removal was very low, which can be related to the extremely large number of inflorescences available in the area. The study of the anatomy of the nectary in E. fulgens suggested that the orchid does not produce nectar in detectable proportions (Appendix 2). Given all the results here reported, there is no indication that at the ecological scenario of the Parque Estadual de Itapeva, L. camara, E. fulgens and A. curassavica are members of a mimetic system. This does not invalidate the possibility that they really are a mimetic system, since the time spent in the study was short and that the evolution of adaptations demand a larger amount of time to be detected.

O mimetismo é uma adaptação onde duas ou mais espécies, que podem pertencer a grupos taxonômicos distintos, assemelham-se no padrão geral de cor e/ou forma e que devido a isso são confundidas por um outro organismo. Os tipos clássicos de mimetismo, Batesiano e Mülleriano, nem sempre se ajustam a estudos com flores; esta limitação, todavia, não afeta o chamado Sistema Tripartido. O Sistema Tripartido foi proposto originalmente por Wolfgang Wickler (1968) e aperfeiçoado por Richard I. Vane Right (1976); o sistema é formado por três elementos constantes: modelo (S1), o mímico (S2) e operador (O – o qual Wickler originalmente representou como R – receptor de sinal). O presente estudo concentra-se em três plantas que coexistem na restinga do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, as quais mostram um padrão convergente na coloração de suas flores. As espécies são Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), ambas produtoras de néctar, e Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]), aparentemente não produtora de néctar e considerado o suposto mímico do sistema. O trabalho de campo foi realizado entre a primavera de 2004 e verão de 2006. Para tanto, foram avaliados aspectos concernentes ao número e identificação dos polinizadores potenciais (especialmente borboletas – excepcionalmente, uma ou duas espécies de mariposas foram encontradas, porém mostrando baixa contribuição); às fenofases de floração e frutificação das três espécies. Também foram realizados experimentos de cruzamento em E. fulgens (autopolinização espontânea e induzida, geitonogamia, xenogamia); remoção de polinários de E. fulgens em relação à distância da fonte de néctar (L. camara), bem como uma descrição da anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens para verificar a existência de tecido produtor de néctar. Dentre as 28 espécies de lepidópteros diurnos que foram registradas, destacam-se Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae) e Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae), as quais visitam as três espécies de plantas. Não houve sincronia de floração entre as fenofases, ou seja, não houve diferença estatística entre A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara. Os experimentos de cruzamento mostraram que E. fulgens é polinizador-dependente. A remoção de polinários de E. fulgens foi baixa, talvez porque a oferta de flores seja alta. Os testes sobre a anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens sugerem que não há produção de néctar (Anexo 2). Estes resultados sugerem que A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara, no cenário ecológico do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, não constituem um complexo mimético. Porém, isto não invalida a possibilidade de que estas plantas realmente constituam um sistema mimético, considerando-se que o presente estudo foi realizado dentro de um curto espaço de tempo, enquanto que estudos a respeito de processos evolutivos requerem maior tempo de observações. / Mimicry is an adaptation where two or more species which can belong to different taxonomic groups, are similar in color pattern and/or behavior, and that for this reason are not discriminated by a third species. Classical Batesian and Müllerian mimicry are not generally useful to describe examples of plant mimicry; however, the so-called tripartite mimicry system does not suffer this restriction. The Tripartite System was first envisaged by Wolfgang Wickler (1968) and latter elaborated and expanded by Richard I. Vane-Wright (1976); the system is based in three constant elements, the model (S1), the mimic (S2) and the operator (O – which Wickler originally represented as R – signal receiver). The present study concentrates on three plants that coexist at Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, RS, and that show a convergence in the pattern of flower color. The species are Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), both nectar producers and Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]) which does not produce nectar and that is considered the mimic in the system. Field work has been done between the spring of 2004 and the summer of 2006. The variables studied were the number and the identity of the potential pollinators (specifically butterflies – exceptionally one or two moths were found but with little contribution), flower and fruit phenology in the three species. Experiments in the field were conducted in E. fulgens to ascertain the mating system of this plant (spontaneous and induced self-pollination, geitonogamy and xenogamy). Moreover, to complement the test of hypothesis of mimicry of E. fulgens in relation to L. camara, the frequency of removal of pollinaria in the orchid were estimated according to the distance from the nectar source. A description of the anatomy of the floral nectary of E. fulgens was also made, to test for nectar production. In the whole, 28 species of diurnal Lepidoptera were observed visiting the flowers of at least two of the three species of plants; among them, Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae), and Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae) did so for the three species of plants. As for the synchrony in flower phenology, there was no statistical significance for any combination of plants. The experiments for mating system of E. fulgens showed that this orchid is pollinator-dependent. Pollinaria removal was very low, which can be related to the extremely large number of inflorescences available in the area. The study of the anatomy of the nectary in E. fulgens suggested that the orchid does not produce nectar in detectable proportions (Appendix 2). Given all the results here reported, there is no indication that at the ecological scenario of the Parque Estadual de Itapeva, L. camara, E. fulgens and A. curassavica are members of a mimetic system. This does not invalidate the possibility that they really are a mimetic system, since the time spent in the study was short and that the evolution of adaptations demand a larger amount of time to be detected.

O mimetismo é uma adaptação onde duas ou mais espécies, que podem pertencer a grupos taxonômicos distintos, assemelham-se no padrão geral de cor e/ou forma e que devido a isso são confundidas por um outro organismo. Os tipos clássicos de mimetismo, Batesiano e Mülleriano, nem sempre se ajustam a estudos com flores; esta limitação, todavia, não afeta o chamado Sistema Tripartido. O Sistema Tripartido foi proposto originalmente por Wolfgang Wickler (1968) e aperfeiçoado por Richard I. Vane Right (1976); o sistema é formado por três elementos constantes: modelo (S1), o mímico (S2) e operador (O – o qual Wickler originalmente representou como R – receptor de sinal). O presente estudo concentra-se em três plantas que coexistem na restinga do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, as quais mostram um padrão convergente na coloração de suas flores. As espécies são Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), ambas produtoras de néctar, e Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]), aparentemente não produtora de néctar e considerado o suposto mímico do sistema. O trabalho de campo foi realizado entre a primavera de 2004 e verão de 2006. Para tanto, foram avaliados aspectos concernentes ao número e identificação dos polinizadores potenciais (especialmente borboletas – excepcionalmente, uma ou duas espécies de mariposas foram encontradas, porém mostrando baixa contribuição); às fenofases de floração e frutificação das três espécies. Também foram realizados experimentos de cruzamento em E. fulgens (autopolinização espontânea e induzida, geitonogamia, xenogamia); remoção de polinários de E. fulgens em relação à distância da fonte de néctar (L. camara), bem como uma descrição da anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens para verificar a existência de tecido produtor de néctar. Dentre as 28 espécies de lepidópteros diurnos que foram registradas, destacam-se Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae) e Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae), as quais visitam as três espécies de plantas. Não houve sincronia de floração entre as fenofases, ou seja, não houve diferença estatística entre A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara. Os experimentos de cruzamento mostraram que E. fulgens é polinizador-dependente. A remoção de polinários de E. fulgens foi baixa, talvez porque a oferta de flores seja alta. Os testes sobre a anatomia do nectário de E. fulgens sugerem que não há produção de néctar (Anexo 2). Estes resultados sugerem que A. curassavica, Epidendrum fulgens e Lantana camara, no cenário ecológico do Parque Estadual de Itapeva, não constituem um complexo mimético. Porém, isto não invalida a possibilidade de que estas plantas realmente constituam um sistema mimético, considerando-se que o presente estudo foi realizado dentro de um curto espaço de tempo, enquanto que estudos a respeito de processos evolutivos requerem maior tempo de observações. / Mimicry is an adaptation where two or more species which can belong to different taxonomic groups, are similar in color pattern and/or behavior, and that for this reason are not discriminated by a third species. Classical Batesian and Müllerian mimicry are not generally useful to describe examples of plant mimicry; however, the so-called tripartite mimicry system does not suffer this restriction. The Tripartite System was first envisaged by Wolfgang Wickler (1968) and latter elaborated and expanded by Richard I. Vane-Wright (1976); the system is based in three constant elements, the model (S1), the mimic (S2) and the operator (O – which Wickler originally represented as R – signal receiver). The present study concentrates on three plants that coexist at Parque Estadual de Itapeva, Torres, RS, and that show a convergence in the pattern of flower color. The species are Asclepias curassavica (Apocynaceae [Asclepiadoideae]), Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), both nectar producers and Epidendrum fulgens (Orchidaceae [Epidendroideae]) which does not produce nectar and that is considered the mimic in the system. Field work has been done between the spring of 2004 and the summer of 2006. The variables studied were the number and the identity of the potential pollinators (specifically butterflies – exceptionally one or two moths were found but with little contribution), flower and fruit phenology in the three species. Experiments in the field were conducted in E. fulgens to ascertain the mating system of this plant (spontaneous and induced self-pollination, geitonogamy and xenogamy). Moreover, to complement the test of hypothesis of mimicry of E. fulgens in relation to L. camara, the frequency of removal of pollinaria in the orchid were estimated according to the distance from the nectar source. A description of the anatomy of the floral nectary of E. fulgens was also made, to test for nectar production. In the whole, 28 species of diurnal Lepidoptera were observed visiting the flowers of at least two of the three species of plants; among them, Agraulis vanillae maculosa, Dryas iulia alcionea, Heliconius erato phyllis, Tegosa claudina (Nymphalidae), and Urbanus simplicius (Hesperiidae) did so for the three species of plants. As for the synchrony in flower phenology, there was no statistical significance for any combination of plants. The experiments for mating system of E. fulgens showed that this orchid is pollinator-dependent. Pollinaria removal was very low, which can be related to the extremely large number of inflorescences available in the area. The study of the anatomy of the nectary in E. fulgens suggested that the orchid does not produce nectar in detectable proportions (Appendix 2). Given all the results here reported, there is no indication that at the ecological scenario of the Parque Estadual de Itapeva, L. camara, E. fulgens and A. curassavica are members of a mimetic system. This does not invalidate the possibility that they really are a mimetic system, since the time spent in the study was short and that the evolution of adaptations demand a larger amount of time to be detected.

The exotic plant Lantana camara L. has invaded the riparian areas of the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site in Livingstone, southern Zambia, threatening native plant communities which support populations of species of special concern. I trialled the mechanical control method of manual uprooting and 3 different herbicides applied through paint brushing of an imazapyr concentrate at 250g. l¯¹, spraying on cut stumps with metsulfron methyl at 600g.l¯¹, and foliar spraying on re-emergent lantana foliage with glyphosate at a dosage of 166g. l¯¹ in July 2008 in 20 100m2 treatment plots, 5 invaded control plots and 5 uninvaded controls. Follow-up treatments for re-sprouting lantana stumps and emerging seedlings were undertaken in June 2009. I measured effectiveness of the methods using adult lantana mortality in June 2009 and lantana seedling density in the different treatment plots during the follow-up exercise. The cost of the various methods and human labour applied were compared across the four treatments at initial clear and at follow-up. All treatments recorded a high adult lantana mortality rate, though there were no significant differences in lantana adult mortality amongst the treatments. Overall, uprooting had the highest adult mortality, followed by imazapyr, metsulfron and lastly glyphosate. Germination of lantana seedlings after clearing was high for all treatments but with no significant differences occurring between the treatments. Both adult lantana mortality and seedling density were however significantly different from the control. With labour included, chemical costs were far higher relative to uprooting, though uprooting costs were the highest when it came to the follow-up because of the emerging seedlings and some resprouting stumps. The effects of mechanical and chemical treatments on vegetation composition in the cleared areas were also assessed in order to detect any non-target and medium term effects of treatments. Contrary to expectation, none of the chemicals showed any significant effects on vegetation composition in the short and medium-term and no significant differences were found in plant species richness, diversity and seedling density between invaded and uninvaded plots at baseline, in October 2008 and in September 2009. In order to determine potential for unaided vegetation recovery in the riparian areas of the study site after lantana clearing, I conducted an investigation of soil seed banks and seed rain using 60 seed bank samples measuring 1800m³ collected from 30 invaded and uninvaded plots. Using the seedling emergence method, 1, 991 seedlings belonging to 66 species representing 27 families germinated from the seed bank. Sedges (Cyperaceae family) were the most abundant taxa in the seed banks from invaded areas, followed by Ageratum conyzoides, lantana, Triumfetta annua and Achyranthes aspera which also occurred in the uninvaded soil seed banks. The seed banks from uninvaded plots were dominated by the grass Oplismenus hirtellus. Overall, species richness, diversity and seedling density from seed banks in invaded areas did not differ significantly from seed bank in uninvaded areas and there was a low similarity in species composition when above ground vegetation was compared to seed banks from invaded and uninvaded areas. It would appear if natural regeneration occured from the current seed bank in disturbed areas, future vegetation would largely comprise of short lived, early successional species in the short term as the seed bank is dominated by non-native herbaceous weedy species. From the seed traps investigating seed rain, a total of 27 species numbering 623 individual seeds were found in the thirty 1m² seedtraps distributed in invaded and uninvaded areas at the five sites, over an intermittent period of three months. Lantana had the highest monthly arrival rate in the seed traps followed by Phoenix reclinata and Ricinus communis. The number of species with invasive potential found in the seed traps located in invaded areas was more than that found in seed traps under native vegetation cover by far. Considerable forest remnants still occur around the invaded sites, and these could serve as an important source for long-term natural re-establishment of native vegetation if seed availability by animals and wind dispersal continues, while the re-invasion of lantana is prevented by ongoing follow-ups and futher clearing of lantana invaded areas. It is concluded that while uprooting and other treatments are effective in the control of lantana, its successful control in the Victoria Falls World Heritage Site will require extensive clearing to keep it from reinvading infested areas after clearing as shown by the seed rain data. The high seedling density of lantana in the seed banks and in the cleared areas shows the need for ongoing follow-up in order to deplete soil stored seed banks. There is need for longer term research to establish what the exact follow-up requirements are in order to contain lantana re-infestation and create favourable micro-sites for native species to establish. It is predicted that ongoing lantana control in the cleared plots will most likely initiate long-term community recovery.

Tropical habitats face a diverse range of anthropogenic threats. Two common and important threats to tropical biodiversity are invasive species and roads. Invasive plants are proposed to be a major threat to biodiversity worldwide, yet not much is known about their impacts on higher trophic levels, such as insects. Roads and other linear intrusions, such as power lines and railway tracks, are another common aspect of human disturbance in natural landscapes, including tropical forests, and are often linked to the spread of invasive plants. I studied impacts of these two important proximate drivers of habitat disturbance, namely invasive plant species and roads, on habitat use by butterflies in a tropical moist deciduous forest in Western Ghats of India. Invasive plants and roads are expected to modify micro-habitat structure, resources and other aspects of ecology of butterflies and thereby influence how they use space (i.e., micro-habitats within the larger habitat). Because systematic ecological information on tropical butterflies is comparatively limited, I adopted a multi-species approach. I examined space use responses of butterflies to a gradient of lantana cover in the forest and to a road passing through forest. The abundance of different species of butterflies in different micro-habitats was taken as a measure of habitat use. Data was collected over two seasons and at two spatial scales. The two habitat disturbances were found to influence local habitat use by butterflies. But interestingly, species appeared to respond differently, with some showing positive, others negative and some no clear association with road verge or lantana gradient. I then examined whether this variation in response could be understood in terms of species-specific functional traits. Correlating the responses of species to a habitat disturbance with functional traits may provide a way of arriving at general patterns and increase the ability of studies to predict responses. Species with similar trait values are expected to respond similarly to a habitat change driver. I measured morphological traits in 254 butterfly species from India and classified them according to their habitat preferences (based on expert opinion). I first examined relationships between morphological traits, habitat preferences and evolutionary relatedness. I then examined patterns of correlation between these traits and responses to the two habitat disturbances and found that certain traits can help predict responses. Overall, my study suggests that butterfly space use is influenced by roads and lantana, but the response varies across species. These changes in habitat use might have important population or community-level consequences, such as population declines and shifts in community structure and composition; these need to be further examined.

Thesis (MSc)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Non-native species are recognized as a major component of global environmental change. Their ecological impacts are numerous and include the alteration of whole ecosystem processes as well as the loss of native biodiversity. As such, understanding the processes that drive the invasion of non-native species is essential for the control and management thereof. Numerous research approaches have been used to provide insight on the history and ecology of non-native species invasions. However, recent approaches employing molecular techniques have greatly helped in solving taxonomic issues associated with some of these species; identifying sources of invasions; and shedding light on colonization dynamics. Lantana camara, a globally invasive and highly variable species complex, is one of the most notorious plant invaders in South Africa. The species has been associated with negative impacts in agricultural areas, decreased invertebrate diversity, livestock mortality, and where it occurs along riparian areas- decreased water quality and obstruction to accessing water sources. This project aimed to review L. camara invasions in South Africa and to unravel patterns of spread in L. camara along the Sabie-Sand catchment in South Africa’s flagship protected area, the Kruger National Park, using a molecular approach. The findings of the first part of the study highlight that L. camara has successfully spread across South Africa with only four known introduction events, and this can be attributed to the species’ broad ecological tolerance, its use in the horticultural industry, and a variety of dispersal vectors (birds, humans and rivers). Furthermore, although sale of the species is prohibited in the country, it will continue to spread naturally and also has the potential to expand its distribution under changing climate scenarios. The second part of the study highlights that spread along the Sabie-Sand catchment is primarily river-driven and that the Sand tributary is the invasion source in the system. Because the Sand tributary originates outside the Kruger National Park, and only a small portion is under park management, the implications for spread are important. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Nie-inheemse spesies word erken as 'n belangrike komponent van die globale omgewing verandering. Hulle ekologiese impak is talle en sluit in die verandering van ekosisteem prosesse asook die verlies van inheemse biodiversiteit. As sodanig, die begrip van die prosesse wat lei tot die inval van 'n nie-inheemse spesies is noodsaaklik vir die beheer en bestuur daarvan. Talle navorsingsbenaderings is gebruik om insig te gee oor die geskiedenis en ekologie van nie-inheemse spesies invalle. Onlangse benaderings soos die gebruik van molekulêre tegnieke, help in die oplossing van taksonomiese kwessies wat verband hou met 'n paar van hierdie spesies,in die identifisering van bronne van invalle, en om lig te werp op die kolonisasie dinamika. Lantana camara, 'n wêreldwye indringende en spesie kompleks, is een van die mees berugte plantindringer in Suid-Afrika. Die spesie is geassosieer met negatiewe gevolge in landbou gebiede, afgeneem ongewerwelde diversiteit, vee mortaliteit, en waar dit voorkom saam oewer gebiede - afgeneem kwaliteit van die water en obstruksie tot waterbronne. Hierdie projek is daarop gemik om om L. camara invalle in Suid-Afrika te hersien en patrone van verspreiding te ontrafel in L. camara langs die Sabie-Sand-opvanggebied in Suid-Afrika se vlagskip beskermde gebied, die Kruger Nasionale Park, met behulp van 'n molekulêre benadering. Die bevindinge van die eerste deel van die studie wys dat L. camara het suksesvol versprei oor die hele Suid-Afrika met slegs vier bekende inleiding gebeure, en dit kan toegeskryf word aan die spesie se breë ekologiese verdraagsaamheid, die gebruik daarvan in die hortologie bedryf, en 'n verskeidenheid van die verspreiding vektore (voëls, mens en riviere). Verder, hoewel die verkoop van die spesie in die land verbied word, sal dit natuurlik voortgaan om te versprei en het ook die potensiaal om uit te brui onder veranderende klimaat scenario's. Die tweede deel van die studie wys dat versprei langs die Sabie-Sandopvanggebied hoofsaaklik rivier-gedrewe is en dat die Sand sytak die inval bron is. Omdat die Sand sytak buite die Kruger Nasionale Park ontstaan, en slegs 'n klein gedeelte onder park bestuur is, is die implikasies vir verspreiding belangrik. / Financial support from the DST-NRF Centre of Excellence for Invasion Biology and the Working for Water (WfW) Programme through their collaborative project on “Research for Integrated Management of Invasive Alien Species” and Stellenbosch University’s Subcommittee B Young Researcher's Fund

L'objectif de ce travail était d'étudier les interactions entre une plante « phytoremédiatrice », Lantana camara (Verbenaceae), le ver de terre, Pontoscolex corethrurus (Glossoscolecidae) et les microorganismes telluriques d'un sol pollué au plomb. Dans un premier temps, il apparaît que dans les sols contaminés, la présence de ver conduit à un accroissement de la biomasse des parties aériennes et racinaires des plantes ainsi qu'à une augmentation de l'absorption de plomb. La caractérisation physico-chimique des agrégats racinaires a montré que l'activité des vers augmente le taux de matière organique, la capacité d'échange cationique ainsi que l'azote total, le potassium total et disponible. De plus, la présence des vers augmente certaines activités enzymatiques de la rhizosphère. La croissance accrue de L. camara pourrait résulter de ces différentes actions. L'action des vers de terre sur les plantes se ferait via les communautés microbiennes telluriques. Ainsi, la biomasse des microorganismes, bactéries et champignons, des agrégats racinaires augmente en présence de vers. La PCR-DGGE n'a pas permis de mettre en évidence de modifications de la structure taxonomique des communautés bactériennes sous l'influence du Pb et/ou du vers, par contre l'analyse des profils physiologiques par plaques Biolog montre clairement une diversification fonctionnelle bactérienne. Les communautés fongiques voient, elles, leur diversité taxonomique, augmenter sous l'action des vers. La restructuration des populations microbiennes, en présence de vers, des agrégats racinaires élaborés par les plantes en milieu pollué au plomb est l'élément déterminant pour la compréhension de l'impact de P. corethrurus sur la croissance et la phytoremédiation de L. camara. L'association de ces deux organismes aurait donc un potentiel considérable pour le traitement de sites industriels pollués au plomb

Vegetative annuals are currently popular in the ornamental horticulture industry. Many crops are newly domesticated species and little is known about how they perform during shipping or in the retail environment. Nine species and 21 cultivars were grown and underwent simulated shipping after harvest or nitrogen toning two weeks before harvest. Shipping was not found to affect the number of flowers on all but two cultivars post ship. Nitrogen toning affected vegetative growth of most Bracteantha bracteata (bracteantha) cultivars at harvest. All species had an effect due to toning postharvest. Bractenatha and Diascia ×hybrida (diascia) were chosen for further study due to their performance during these experiments. The effect of thidiazuron (TDZ) as a foliar spray and nitrogen toning on leaf yellowing and plant growth of bracteantha were evaluated. The two treatments were then combined to see how the two treatments worked together. It was found TDZ decreased leaf yellowing but its effects can be negated if the plants were not toned. Nitrogen toning reduced vegetative growth of the bracteantha without affecting the number of flowers on the plants. Diascia was found to have flower abscission in response to shipping. Further trials were conducted using 1- methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) an ethylene inhibitor. The effects of shipping duration and temperature were investigated. 1-MCP was found to hold flowers on treated plants longer postharvest than those not treated. Plants shipped for one day had no differences from the control but shipping for two days had a negative effect on plant quality. Postharvest shelf life was decreased when diascia was shipped at 24 °C when compared to cooler shipping temperatures. These results indicate shipping for no longer than one day and at less than 24 °C is recommended for diascia.