Thesis (PhD(Psychology))-University of Pretoria, 2006. / Abstract in English. Includes bibliographical references. Available on the Internet via the World Wide Web.

Many of the tool-using activities of both chimpanzees and children involve a complex mixture of interconnected causal relationships between a tool and a reward, and much of this tool-use is thought to be acquired, at least in part, by social learning. However, despite the considerable research effort focused on both causal understanding and social learning, few studies have directly addressed the potential interaction between these areas. It seems likely that the way in which an individual learns to use a tool through observation will be significantly influenced by its understanding of the causal relationships that it observes. This thesis presents a series of nine experiments with 3- to 7-year-old chimpanzees and 3- 6-year-old children, designed to investigate whether causal information is involved in determining which social learning strategy they employ. The first set of experiments demonstrated that chimpanzees could be influence to switch between imitation and emulation to solve the same task, by altering the availability of causal information. When causal information was available, by presenting a tool-use task in a transparent condition, chimpanzees were found to reproduce only the results of a model's behaviour, consistent with emulation. However, when the availability of causal information was restricted, by presenting the same task in an opaque condition, the chimpanzees included a greater proportion of the model's behaviour, consistent with imitation. The second set of experiments revealed that chimpanzees could learn specific causal information by observation, such as the significance of tool-reward contact. However, they may be overwhelmed by observing multiple causal relationships, or those involving unobservable causal principles, such as gravity or force. The common view that the widespread evidence for emulation in chimpanzee social learning studies indicates a deficit of imitative capacity may therefore be misleading. The results of this thesis suggest more generally that when causal information is available, chimpanzees tend to use emulation. They are also able to imitate, but do so mainly in situations where emulation is not possible. Thus, the availability of causal information plays an important role in chimpanzee social learning, by determining which learning strategy is employed, and ultimately the degree of behavioural fidelity that is achieved, hi contrast, the studies with children revealed that they imitate the actions that they observe without appearing to consider the causal efficiency of their behaviour. This may be due to a greater focus on the actions of a demonstrator rather than the results or goals of their behaviour, and a greater tendency to interpret those actions as intentional.

To investigate the effects of attribution retraining under conditions of intermittent success and failure, 14 helpless subjects were given 15 days of treatment in one of two procedures. Except for the attribution of all failures to lack of effort in the attribution retraining condition, the two procedures were identical in all respects. After training, both groups showed significant and equivalent improvement in reactions to failure, suggesting that intermittent success and failure increase the persistence of helpless children, rather than attribution retraining as suggested by Dweck (1975). Recommendations included follow-up studies and exploration of the attributional patterns of children under conditions of intermittent success and failure.

Twenty years after the first pilot projects began to develop Student Active Learning (SAL) in Indonesia, and four years since it was adopted for use in the last provinces, this research investigates the implementation of Student Active Learning in Indonesian primary mathematics classrooms. A study of the relevant literature indicates that teaching based on constructivist principles is unlikely to be implemented well in mathematics classrooms unless there are high quality teachers, readily available manipulative materials, and a supportive learning environment. As Indonesian schools often lack one or more of these aspects, it seemed likely that Student Active Learning principles might not be ‘fully’ implemented in Indonesian primary mathematics classrooms. Thus a smaller scale, parallel study was carried out in Australian schools where there is no policy of Student Active Learning, but where its underlying principles are compatible with the stated views about learning and teaching mathematics. The study employed a qualitative interpretive methodology. Sixteen primary teachers from four urban and four rural Indonesian schools and four teachers from two Victorian schools were observed for four mathematics lessons each. The twenty teachers, as well as fourteen Indonesian headteachers and other education professionals, were interviewed in order to establish links between the background and beliefs of participants, and their implementation of Student Active Learning. Information on perceived constraints on the implementation of SAL was also sought. The results of this study suggest that Student Active learning has been implemented at four levels in Indonesian primary mathematics classrooms, ranging from essentially no implementation to a relatively high level of implementation, with an even higher level of implementation in three of the four Australian classrooms observed. Indonesian teachers, headteachers and supervisors hold a range of views of SAL and also of mathematics learning and teaching. These views largely depended on their in-service training in SAL and, more particularly, on their participation in the PEQIP project Typically, participants’ expressed views of SAL were at the same or higher level as their views of mathematics learning and teaching, with a similar pattern being observed in the relationship between these latter views and their implementation of SAL principles. Three factors were identified as influencing teacher change in terms of implementation of SAL: policy, curricular and organisational, and attitudes. Recommendations arising from this study include the adoption of reflection as an underlying principle in the theory of SAL, the continuation and extension of PEQIP type projects, changes in government policy on curriculum coverage and pre-service teacher training, and more support for teachers at the school and local authority levels.

The aim of this thesis is to examine the cognitive processes of social learning from the bottom up. In the field of comparative psychology, an overemphasis on understanding complex cognitive processes in nonhuman animals (e.g. empathy, imitation), may be detrimental to the study of simpler mechanisms. In this thesis, I report five studies of simple cognitive processes related to social learning. A series of experiments with human children and capuchin monkeys (Sapajus sp.), examined action imitation and identified a possible role for associative learning in the development of this ability. An analysis of observational data from captive capuchins explored a number of lesser-studied social learning phenomena, including behavioural synchrony, the neighbour effect, and group-size effects. The results of this study emphasise the importance of exploring behaviour at a number of levels to appreciate the dynamic nature of social influence. Two final experiments examined social contagion in capuchin monkeys, and highlight the importance of describing the relationship between behaviour and emotion to properly understand more complex social cognition. Together, these studies demonstrate how approaching human and nonhuman behaviour from the bottom up, as well as from the top down, can contribute to a better comparative science of social learning.

Text in Afrikaans / Die doel van die ondersoek was om insig in die leefwereld van die leergestremde adolessent te bekom, ten einde probleemareas wat doeltreffende aanpassing in die leefwereld verhinder, bloot te le. In die probleemontleding het die volgende aspekte na vore getree: Daar is 'n groeiende bewuswording onder navorsers dat die sosiaalemosionele probleme wat die leergestremde adolessent ervaar, duideliker aangespreek moet word. Die noodsaaklikheid om die leergestremde adolessent vir volwassenheid voor te berei, word toenemend besef. In die literatuurstudie is die tydperk van adolessensie, leergestremdheid as fenomeen, en die leefwereld van die leergestremde adolessent onderskeidelik bespreek. Enkele gevolgtrekkinge word aangestip: Adolessensie word gekenmerk deur fisiese, kognitiewe, affektiewe, sosiale en morele ontwikkeling. Hierdie veranderinge hou implikasies in vir die adolessent se uitvoer van ontwikkelingstake, die ontplooiing van die selfkonsep en die groei na onafhanklikheid. Die fenomeen leergestremdheid openbaar 'n komplekse aard wat 'n persoon in sy totaliteit raak. Die manifestasies van leergestremdheid betrek die akademiese vordering sowel as die sosiaal-emosionele ontwikkeling van die individu. Die leergestremde adolessent se aanpassing in sy leefwereld word nadelig beinvloed deur sosiale vaardigheidstekorte, interpersoonlike verhoudingsprobleme, 'n gebrekkige selfkonsep, emosionele probleme, die gebruik van verdedigingsmeganismes en 'n verminderde strewe na onafhanklikheid. In die empiriese ondersoek is inligting oor die leergestremde adolessent se interpersoonlike verhoudinge, selfkonsep en emosionaliteit bekom. In die interpretasie van die data is veranderlikes waar die leergestremde ado l essente swakker aanpassing as die normal e populasie getoon het, eerstens geidentifiseer. Verskille wat by die leergestremde adolessente ten opsigte van geslag en ouderdomsgroep voorgekom het, is vervolgens uitgelig. Ten slotte is 'n faktorontleding uitgevoer ten einde 'n gemeenskaplikheid tussen die onderskeie veranderlikes te bepaal. Op grond van die bevindinge uit die literatuur en die empiriese studie, is riglyne vir hulpverlening geformuleer. Die navorsingsbevindinge is veral van belang vir onderwysers, ouers en ander opvoeders wat met die leergestremde adolessent gemoeid is. / The purpose of the study was to gain insight into the life-world of the learning disabled adolescent in order to reveal problems which prevent effective adjustment in the life-world. In the analysis of the problem the following aspects were prominent: It is recognised that the social-emotional problems experienced by the learning disabled adolescent should be addressed in greater depth. The need to prepare the learning disabled adolescent for adulthood is realised. In the literature study the period of adolescence, learning disabilities as a phenomenon, and the life-world of the learning disabled adolescent were discussed. The following conclusions can be mentioned: Adolescence is characterised by physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral development. These changes have implications for the adolescent's accomplishment of developmental tasks, the development of the self-concept and the grow towards independence. Learning disabilities as a phenomenon reveals a complex nature that affects the total person. The manifestations of learning disabilities involve the academic progress and the social-emotional development of the individual. The adjustment of the learning disabled adolescent in his lifeworld is adversely affected by deficits in social skills, problematic interpersonal relationships, an inadequate self-concept, emotional problems, the use of defence mechanisms and an insufficient strive towards independence. In the empirical investigation information was obtained about the learning disabled adolescent's interpersonal relationships, self-concept and emotionality. In the interpretation of the data variables were identified where the learning disabled adolescents showed poorer adjustment than the normal population. Differences between learning disabled adolescents with regard to age and sex were highlighted next. Finally, a factor analysis was carried out to determine whether a communality exists among the respective variables. On the basis of the findings of the literature and the empirical study, guidelines for the rendering of aid were formulated. The research findings are especially important to teachers, parents and other educators involved with the learning disabled adolescent. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Sielkundige Opvoedkunde)

This study has aimed to investigate monitoring accuracy as a skill in an academic performance. First part of the study defined metacognitive monitoring theoretically as a strategy evolved from metacognitive strategies and based on self-regulated learning principles. Previous studies assert that monitoring accuracy is a beneficial skill that enhances performance regardless a domain of use. In order to give those claims empirical support in the Czech educational environment, the research has been carried out. Data have been collected from three classes of 6th graders within six weeks. Classes were assigned during the practice test into different settings: individual, competitive and cooperative. Reading comprehension has been selected as the monitored skill. The results corroborate the assumptions that monitoring accuracy training is beneficial both for performance and for increasing metacognitive skills to monitor. Secondary, the cooperative setting appeared to be the only one that both calibration accuracy and reading comprehension did significantly increase. The outcomes and recommendations for follow-up studies are discussed.

Text in Afrikaans / Die doel van die ondersoek was om insig in die leefwereld van die leergestremde adolessent te bekom, ten einde probleemareas wat doeltreffende aanpassing in die leefwereld verhinder, bloot te le. In die probleemontleding het die volgende aspekte na vore getree: Daar is 'n groeiende bewuswording onder navorsers dat die sosiaalemosionele probleme wat die leergestremde adolessent ervaar, duideliker aangespreek moet word. Die noodsaaklikheid om die leergestremde adolessent vir volwassenheid voor te berei, word toenemend besef. In die literatuurstudie is die tydperk van adolessensie, leergestremdheid as fenomeen, en die leefwereld van die leergestremde adolessent onderskeidelik bespreek. Enkele gevolgtrekkinge word aangestip: Adolessensie word gekenmerk deur fisiese, kognitiewe, affektiewe, sosiale en morele ontwikkeling. Hierdie veranderinge hou implikasies in vir die adolessent se uitvoer van ontwikkelingstake, die ontplooiing van die selfkonsep en die groei na onafhanklikheid. Die fenomeen leergestremdheid openbaar 'n komplekse aard wat 'n persoon in sy totaliteit raak. Die manifestasies van leergestremdheid betrek die akademiese vordering sowel as die sosiaal-emosionele ontwikkeling van die individu. Die leergestremde adolessent se aanpassing in sy leefwereld word nadelig beinvloed deur sosiale vaardigheidstekorte, interpersoonlike verhoudingsprobleme, 'n gebrekkige selfkonsep, emosionele probleme, die gebruik van verdedigingsmeganismes en 'n verminderde strewe na onafhanklikheid. In die empiriese ondersoek is inligting oor die leergestremde adolessent se interpersoonlike verhoudinge, selfkonsep en emosionaliteit bekom. In die interpretasie van die data is veranderlikes waar die leergestremde ado l essente swakker aanpassing as die normal e populasie getoon het, eerstens geidentifiseer. Verskille wat by die leergestremde adolessente ten opsigte van geslag en ouderdomsgroep voorgekom het, is vervolgens uitgelig. Ten slotte is 'n faktorontleding uitgevoer ten einde 'n gemeenskaplikheid tussen die onderskeie veranderlikes te bepaal. Op grond van die bevindinge uit die literatuur en die empiriese studie, is riglyne vir hulpverlening geformuleer. Die navorsingsbevindinge is veral van belang vir onderwysers, ouers en ander opvoeders wat met die leergestremde adolessent gemoeid is. / The purpose of the study was to gain insight into the life-world of the learning disabled adolescent in order to reveal problems which prevent effective adjustment in the life-world. In the analysis of the problem the following aspects were prominent: It is recognised that the social-emotional problems experienced by the learning disabled adolescent should be addressed in greater depth. The need to prepare the learning disabled adolescent for adulthood is realised. In the literature study the period of adolescence, learning disabilities as a phenomenon, and the life-world of the learning disabled adolescent were discussed. The following conclusions can be mentioned: Adolescence is characterised by physical, cognitive, emotional, social and moral development. These changes have implications for the adolescent's accomplishment of developmental tasks, the development of the self-concept and the grow towards independence. Learning disabilities as a phenomenon reveals a complex nature that affects the total person. The manifestations of learning disabilities involve the academic progress and the social-emotional development of the individual. The adjustment of the learning disabled adolescent in his lifeworld is adversely affected by deficits in social skills, problematic interpersonal relationships, an inadequate self-concept, emotional problems, the use of defence mechanisms and an insufficient strive towards independence. In the empirical investigation information was obtained about the learning disabled adolescent's interpersonal relationships, self-concept and emotionality. In the interpretation of the data variables were identified where the learning disabled adolescents showed poorer adjustment than the normal population. Differences between learning disabled adolescents with regard to age and sex were highlighted next. Finally, a factor analysis was carried out to determine whether a communality exists among the respective variables. On the basis of the findings of the literature and the empirical study, guidelines for the rendering of aid were formulated. The research findings are especially important to teachers, parents and other educators involved with the learning disabled adolescent. / Psychology of Education / D. Ed. (Sielkundige Opvoedkunde)

Aim: The existing literature on the experiences of individuals who have undertaken Problem-Based Learning (PBL) as part of their doctoral Clinical Psychology training in the UK is scarce, particularly from the perspective of qualitative peer research. The aim of the present study was to construct and articulate a deeper account of such experiences, and in particular, to explore how individuals make sense of these experiences. It is hoped that the findings of the present study will increase awareness within Clinical Psychology training programmes of the experiences, perspectives and needs of trainees who undertake PBL. Method: A qualitative approach was adopted. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with eight Trainee Clinical Psychologists who have undertaken PBL at a Clinical Psychology training programme in South-East England. Their accounts were analysed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA), which endeavours to illuminate the lived experiences of small samples of individuals who have experienced a particular phenomenon. Results: The analytic procedure highlighted four main themes emerging within participants’ accounts: Intensity of the experience; Striving towards connection versus fear of disconnection; Responses to manage the experience(s) can be unhelpful and helpful; and Trying to make sense of PBL. Implications: Participants characterised PBL as a challenging yet invaluable process through which they made significant gains, both professionally and personally. Facilitators were noted to play a key role in helping to create safe spaces in which trainees are supported to engage with issues that may arise for them in relation to their professional and personal development. Implications and recommendations are outlined for the benefit of Clinical Psychology training programmes that may wish to incorporate or alter PBL within their syllabuses.