Submitted by BRUNA MAGDA FAVETTI null (favettibruna@yahoo.com.br) on 2017-07-04T18:56:59Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Tese Doutorado_Bruna Magda Favetti_Agronomia_Proteção de Plantas_2017.pdf: 4736038 bytes, checksum: e4e1eee97d6fceda7b39a3070b6ff22c (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Luiz Galeffi (luizgaleffi@gmail.com) on 2017-07-04T19:52:05Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 favetti_bm_dr_bot.pdf: 4736038 bytes, checksum: e4e1eee97d6fceda7b39a3070b6ff22c (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-04T19:52:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 favetti_bm_dr_bot.pdf: 4736038 bytes, checksum: e4e1eee97d6fceda7b39a3070b6ff22c (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-11 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / A soja (Glycine max) é uma das culturas mais importantes no agronegócio brasileiro. Um dos principais problemas fitossanitários ocorrentes nesse cultivo é o ataque de insetos-praga, que estão presentes desde a emergência da plântula até a fase de colheita. O controle desses insetos é realizado a partir de inseticidas sintéticos. Porém, a tática de controle biológico tem sido cada vez mais utilizada no Brasil, tornando-se uma importante ferramenta no Manejo Integrado de Pragas (MIP). Entre as opções, o parasitoide de ovos Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) reduz a infestação de populações de insetos-praga da ordem Lepidoptera, propiciando menor impacto ambiental e a produção de alimentos mais saudáveis. Com isso, o presente trabalho verificou as características bioecológicas de T. pretiosum em espécies de Heliothinae, como também avaliou diferentes quantidades e formas de liberação deste parasitoide, demostrando o seu papel no manejo de lepidópteros-praga na cultura da soja. Para atingir este objetivo a tese foi dividida em quatro capítulos: (1) características biológicas e exigências térmicas de T. pretiosum em três espécies de Heliothinae; (2) capacidade de parasitismo de T. pretiosum em três espécies de Heliothinae sob diferentes temperaturas; (3) técnicas de liberação de T. pretiosum para o controle de lepidópteros-praga da soja; (4) manejo integrado de insetos-praga na cultura da soja com e sem controle biológico. No laboratório avaliou-se o potencial do parasitoide de ovos no controle das espécies de Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) e Chloridea virescens (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) sendo os experimentos mantidos em câmaras climatizadas (BOD), nas temperaturas de 15, 20, 25, 30 e 35 ± 2 ºC, umidade relativa de 70 ± 10% e fotofase de 14 horas. No campo, os experimentos de avaliação das diferentes técnicas de liberação de T. pretiosum (adulto e cápsula contendo pupas protegidas) e quantidade de T. pretiosum liberado (120 mil e 60 mil parasitoides/liberação/hectare), bem como, o manejo de insetos-praga com e sem a liberação deste parasitoide, foram conduzidos na Fazenda de Ensino, Pesquisa e Extensão (FEPE), Universidade Estadual “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” - FCA/UNESP, Campus Botucatu-SP, safras 2014/15 e 2015/16. Pode-se afirmar que T. pretiosum controla as espécies de Heliothinae e a temperatura influencia a biologia e capacidade de parasitismo deste inseto, com impacto negativo nas temperaturas extremas (15 e 35ºC). Tanto a liberação de T. pretiosum via cápsula contendo pupas protegidas quanto adulto, bem como o uso de 120 mil parasitoides/liberação/hectare, exercem o controle das populações de lepidópteros-praga. A adoção do manejo biológico de lepidópteros com o uso de T. pretiosum evitou a utilização de inseticidas nas duas safras avaliadas, uma vez que o nível de controle não foi atingido. De maneira geral, conclui-se o agente biológico T. pretiosum é eficiente no controle de lepidópteros-praga e, juntamente com a adoção dos preceitos do MIP (monitoramento, adoção do nível de controle e integração de táticas), favorece a atuação de agentes benéficos, subsidiando assim a perspectiva de inserção desse parasitoide de ovos em programas de MIP-Soja, visando à busca por um ambiente agrícola mais sustentável. / The Soybean (Glycine max) is one of the most important crops in Brazilian agribusiness. One of the main phytosanitary problems occurring in this crop is the attack of insect pests, which are present from the emergence of the seedling until the harvest. The control of these insects is carried out from synthetic insecticides. However, the biological control tactic has been increasingly used in Brazil, becoming an important tool in Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Among the options, the Trichogramma pretiosum Riley (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is a parasitoid egg reduces the infestation of populations of insect pests of the order Lepidoptera, providing less environmental impact and the production of healthier foods. Thus, the present work verified the bioecological characteristics of T. pretiosum in Heliothinae species, as well as evaluating different amounts and forms of release of this parasitoid, demonstrating its role in the management of lepidopteran pests in the soybean crop. To achieve this objective the thesis was divided into four chapters: (1) biological characteristics and thermal requirements of T. pretiosum in three species of Heliothinae; (2) the parasitism capacity of T. pretiosum in three Heliothinae species under different temperatures; (3) techniques for the release of T. pretiosum for the control of lepidopteran pests of soybean; (4) integrated pest-insect management in soybean crop with and without biological control. In the laboratory the potential of the parasitoid of the eggs in the control of the species of Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Helicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) and Chloridea virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) were evaluated in temperatures of 15, 20, 25, 30 and 35 ± 2ºC, relative humidity of 70 ± 10% and photophase of 14 hours. In the field, the evaluation experiments of the different techniques of T. pretiosum release (adult and capsule containing protected pupae) and quantity of T. pretiosum released (120 thousand and 60 thousand parasitoids/ release/hectare), as well as the management of pest insects with and without the release of this parasitoid, were conducted at Fazenda de Ensino, Pesquisa e Extensão (FEPE), Universidade Estadual “Júlio de Mesquita Filho” - FCA/UNESP, Campus Botucatu-SP, in 2014/15 and 2015/16 seasons. The T. pretiosum controls Heliothinae species and temperature influences the biology and parasitism capacity of this insect, with a negative impact on extreme temperatures (15 and 35 ºC). Both the release of T. pretiosum via capsule containing protected pupae as adult, as well as 120 thousand parasitoids/release/hectare exert control of the populations of lepidopteran pest. The adoption of biological management of lepidopteran with the use of T. pretiosum avoided the use of insecticides in the two seasons evaluated, once the level of control was not reached. In general, the biological agent T. pretiosum is efficient in controlling lepidopteran pests and, together with the adoption of IPM precepts (monitoring, adoption of the level of control and integration of tactics), favors the performance of agents beneficial, thus subsidizing the perspective of insertion of this parasitoid of eggs into IPM-Soybean programs, aiming at the search for a more sustainable agricultural environment.

Grandes metrópoles promovem vários impactos antrópicos que levam à redução tanto da vegetação quanto da fauna local. Parques e áreas verdes parecem ser seus refúgios nestes ambientes. As borboletas têm ampla distribuição geográfica e, mesmo inseridas no ecossistema urbano, apresentam relativa diversidade e abundância. São, assim, excelentes ferramentas para estudos da fauna urbana. As informações obtidas através destas podem ser base para estratégias de manejo de áreas verdes dentro da malha urbana. Visando conhecer a fauna de borboletas de Porto Alegre e a influência de fatores antrópicos sobre esta, realizou-se levantamentos sazonais, entre 2003 e 2005, em seis áreas com diferentes características quanto à urbanização: Parque Farroupilha (PF), Parque Marinha do Brasil (PM), Ilha do Pavão (IP), Jardim Botânico (JB), Parque Saint’ Hilaire (SH) e Morro Santana (MS). Em 672 horas/redes, amostrou-se um total de 5.789 indivíduos em 243 espécies, com 24 novos registros para o Estado. Em linhas gerais, as áreas mais afastadas do centro da cidade apresentaram maior riqueza e abundância: MS (170 e 1.528), SH (119 e 1.169), JB (118 e 1.330), PF (73 e 364), IP (71 e 980) e PM (67 e 814) ilustrando efeitos do gradiente urbano. Vinte e seis espécies foram observadas em todas as áreas e 106 aparecem somente em uma destas: 47 apenas no MS, 24 no SH, 18 no JB, 9 no PF, 5 no PM e 3 no IP. Destacam-se os itomíneos Episcada carcinia Schaus, 1902, exclusiva do MS e Aeria olena olena Weyer, 1875, presente apenas no MS e no SH, indicando o potencial destas áreas para a conservação. A alta riqueza de Hesperiidae e Lycaenidae contrasta com a citada em outros trabalhos para o Estado, sugerindo que alta intensidade amostral é necessária para obter representatividade destas famílias. Estimadores da riqueza de espécies indicam espécies ainda não amostradas, principalmente no MS, mas estimam que entre 68% a 96% da fauna foi representada neste estudo. Os intervalos de 95% de confiança das curvas de acúmulo de espécies agrupam as áreas em três: I (PF, PM e IP), II (JB e SH) e III (MS). A abundância de borboletas teve significativa correlação positiva com cobertura vegetal, diversidade da vegetação e nível de conservação de cada área e negativa com a infra-estrutura de cada área (p<0,001). O gradiente de diversidade foi, em geral, inversamente proporcional ao de urbanização. Os resultados destacam a importância para a fauna de parques e áreas verdes no interior das grandes metrópoles. A situação destas áreas dentro da cidade pode ainda contribuir para o conhecimento do público, que pouco sabe sobre a diversidade dos ambientes em que vive, e assim, fomentar apoio à conservação. / Large Metropoles promote a variety of anthropic impacts which affect flora and fauna. Parks and green areas seem to function as refuges in these environments. Butterflies have a broad geographic distribution and, even within the urban environment, assemblages maintain reasonable abundance and richness of species. Therefore, these insects can be very useful tools for studies on urban fauna. Information gathered on them may provide basis for management strategies for green areas amongst the urban matrix. Aiming to add to the knowledge on the butterfly fauna of Porto Alegre and to assess the effect anthropic impact exert upon it, seasonal sampling took place from may 2003 to march 2005, in six green areas differing in terms of urbanization level: Parque Farroupilha (PF), Parque Marinha do Brasil (PM), Ilha do Pavão (IP), Jardim Botânico (JB), Parque Saint’ Hilaire(SH) and Morro Santana(MS). From a total of 672 net-hours, 5789 individuals of 243 species were recorded, 24 species being new records for Rio Grande do Sul. As a pattern, the farther from the city center the area was, the higher species richness and abundance - MS (170 and 1528), SH (119 and 1169), JB (118 and 1330), IP (71 and 980), PM (71 and 814) and PF ( 73 and 364). Twenty six species were observed in all six areas and 106 in only one of them: 47 exclusively in MS, 24 in SH, 18 in JB, 9 in PF, 5 in PM and 3 in IP. Noteworthy were the Ithominae Epicada carcinia Schaus 1902, sampled only in MS, and Aeria olena olena Weyer, 1875, obtained from both MS and SH, suggesting a high potential of these sites for conservation. The high level of richness of Hesperidae and Lycaenidae recorded here, in contrast with other studies for Rio Grande do Sul, recommend high sampling intensity in order to obtain a fair representation of these families on the sample. Analytical estimators of species richness point to still more species to be registered in the study areas, mainly in MS; even so, these estimators indicate that between 68 to 96% of the butterfly species present were sampled. The 95% confidence intervals for the species accumulation curves grouped the areas as follows: I (PF, PM and IP); II (JB and SH) and III (MS). Significant correlations were evidenced between butterfly abundance and indicators of urbanization level of the areas: positive for vegetation cover, vegetation diversity and level of conservation; and negative for facilities framework (p< 0.001). The diversity gradient was, as a whole, inversely related to the urbanization gradient. Results endorse the crucial value for the fauna of the parks and green areas within the city. Furthermore, these areas may contribute to the public knowledge on the diversity of the environments city dwellers live in and thus foster support for conservation.

Grandes metrópoles promovem vários impactos antrópicos que levam à redução tanto da vegetação quanto da fauna local. Parques e áreas verdes parecem ser seus refúgios nestes ambientes. As borboletas têm ampla distribuição geográfica e, mesmo inseridas no ecossistema urbano, apresentam relativa diversidade e abundância. São, assim, excelentes ferramentas para estudos da fauna urbana. As informações obtidas através destas podem ser base para estratégias de manejo de áreas verdes dentro da malha urbana. Visando conhecer a fauna de borboletas de Porto Alegre e a influência de fatores antrópicos sobre esta, realizou-se levantamentos sazonais, entre 2003 e 2005, em seis áreas com diferentes características quanto à urbanização: Parque Farroupilha (PF), Parque Marinha do Brasil (PM), Ilha do Pavão (IP), Jardim Botânico (JB), Parque Saint’ Hilaire (SH) e Morro Santana (MS). Em 672 horas/redes, amostrou-se um total de 5.789 indivíduos em 243 espécies, com 24 novos registros para o Estado. Em linhas gerais, as áreas mais afastadas do centro da cidade apresentaram maior riqueza e abundância: MS (170 e 1.528), SH (119 e 1.169), JB (118 e 1.330), PF (73 e 364), IP (71 e 980) e PM (67 e 814) ilustrando efeitos do gradiente urbano. Vinte e seis espécies foram observadas em todas as áreas e 106 aparecem somente em uma destas: 47 apenas no MS, 24 no SH, 18 no JB, 9 no PF, 5 no PM e 3 no IP. Destacam-se os itomíneos Episcada carcinia Schaus, 1902, exclusiva do MS e Aeria olena olena Weyer, 1875, presente apenas no MS e no SH, indicando o potencial destas áreas para a conservação. A alta riqueza de Hesperiidae e Lycaenidae contrasta com a citada em outros trabalhos para o Estado, sugerindo que alta intensidade amostral é necessária para obter representatividade destas famílias. Estimadores da riqueza de espécies indicam espécies ainda não amostradas, principalmente no MS, mas estimam que entre 68% a 96% da fauna foi representada neste estudo. Os intervalos de 95% de confiança das curvas de acúmulo de espécies agrupam as áreas em três: I (PF, PM e IP), II (JB e SH) e III (MS). A abundância de borboletas teve significativa correlação positiva com cobertura vegetal, diversidade da vegetação e nível de conservação de cada área e negativa com a infra-estrutura de cada área (p<0,001). O gradiente de diversidade foi, em geral, inversamente proporcional ao de urbanização. Os resultados destacam a importância para a fauna de parques e áreas verdes no interior das grandes metrópoles. A situação destas áreas dentro da cidade pode ainda contribuir para o conhecimento do público, que pouco sabe sobre a diversidade dos ambientes em que vive, e assim, fomentar apoio à conservação. / Large Metropoles promote a variety of anthropic impacts which affect flora and fauna. Parks and green areas seem to function as refuges in these environments. Butterflies have a broad geographic distribution and, even within the urban environment, assemblages maintain reasonable abundance and richness of species. Therefore, these insects can be very useful tools for studies on urban fauna. Information gathered on them may provide basis for management strategies for green areas amongst the urban matrix. Aiming to add to the knowledge on the butterfly fauna of Porto Alegre and to assess the effect anthropic impact exert upon it, seasonal sampling took place from may 2003 to march 2005, in six green areas differing in terms of urbanization level: Parque Farroupilha (PF), Parque Marinha do Brasil (PM), Ilha do Pavão (IP), Jardim Botânico (JB), Parque Saint’ Hilaire(SH) and Morro Santana(MS). From a total of 672 net-hours, 5789 individuals of 243 species were recorded, 24 species being new records for Rio Grande do Sul. As a pattern, the farther from the city center the area was, the higher species richness and abundance - MS (170 and 1528), SH (119 and 1169), JB (118 and 1330), IP (71 and 980), PM (71 and 814) and PF ( 73 and 364). Twenty six species were observed in all six areas and 106 in only one of them: 47 exclusively in MS, 24 in SH, 18 in JB, 9 in PF, 5 in PM and 3 in IP. Noteworthy were the Ithominae Epicada carcinia Schaus 1902, sampled only in MS, and Aeria olena olena Weyer, 1875, obtained from both MS and SH, suggesting a high potential of these sites for conservation. The high level of richness of Hesperidae and Lycaenidae recorded here, in contrast with other studies for Rio Grande do Sul, recommend high sampling intensity in order to obtain a fair representation of these families on the sample. Analytical estimators of species richness point to still more species to be registered in the study areas, mainly in MS; even so, these estimators indicate that between 68 to 96% of the butterfly species present were sampled. The 95% confidence intervals for the species accumulation curves grouped the areas as follows: I (PF, PM and IP); II (JB and SH) and III (MS). Significant correlations were evidenced between butterfly abundance and indicators of urbanization level of the areas: positive for vegetation cover, vegetation diversity and level of conservation; and negative for facilities framework (p< 0.001). The diversity gradient was, as a whole, inversely related to the urbanization gradient. Results endorse the crucial value for the fauna of the parks and green areas within the city. Furthermore, these areas may contribute to the public knowledge on the diversity of the environments city dwellers live in and thus foster support for conservation.

Submitted by Andre Moraes Queiroz (andre.moraesqueiroz@ufpe.br) on 2015-04-14T15:05:53Z No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Patricia Rocha.pdf: 2020756 bytes, checksum: 96804531919a1d7e9cb5ab9787d73242 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2015-04-14T15:05:53Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 Dissertação Patricia Rocha.pdf: 2020756 bytes, checksum: 96804531919a1d7e9cb5ab9787d73242 (MD5) license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013 / FACEPE / A ordem Lepidoptera apresenta uma gama de espécimes de importância econômica, algumas são agentes polinizadores e outras são pragas. Vários estudos têm sido realizados com base na morfologia com base em dados moleculares para elucidar a evolução da ordem. O DNA mitocondrial é muito utilizado por proporcionar boa resolução filogenética. Com base em genes mitocondriais informativos, nós propusemos um conjunto de dados que pode ser utilizado em análise filogenética de Lepidoptera obtendo a mesma robustez que a análise com mtDNAs completos. Para isso, as sequências dos mitogenomas de Lepidoptera foram recuperadas no banco de dados do NCBI. Foi identificada a ordem gênica das sequências utilizando o programa MAUVE. As regiões de interesse em D. flavipennella foram sequenciadas para testar a eficiência dos marcadores moleculares em sequência nova. Foi realizada análise de entropia, teste de sinal filogenético e de saturação para verificar características de bons marcadores moleculares e foram realizadas análises filogenéticas nos programas PhyML e MrBayes. Foram realizados também testes com e sem a terceira posição dos códons para verificar a influência da terceira posição nas análises filogenéticas de Lepidoptera. As regiões estudadas foram concatenadas para aumentar os valores de confiança das árvores. Verificamos que com a concatenação dos genes COI, ATP6, COIII, ND3, ND5, CYTB, ND1 e 16S foi possível obter resultados com robustez semelhante a dos mitogenomas completos.

Increases in temperature and precipitation predicted under global warming are expected to be most pronounced and thus have their greatest impact on ecosystems at high latitudes. Insects constitute a major component of the foodwebs of terrestrial ecosystems and should be among the first organisms to show noticeable responses to predicted global warming, especially in the Arctic where climatic conditions are often limiting. However, interactions among species must also be taken into account. The genus Gynaephora Hübner (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) is represented in North America by two species, G. groenlandica (Wocke) and G. rossii (Curtis), and their geographic distributions overlap broadly across the Canadian Arctic. Previous studies have examined the biology, ecology, and physiology of these two species and have revealed many adaptations to the Arctic environment, but the immature stages of these insects have been misidentified even in recently published reports. Both species are found at Alexandra Fiord, Ellesmere Island, a High Arctic oasis largely isolated by expanses of ocean and icecap, and the population of G. groenlandica at this site is thought to be limited mainly by parasitoid-induced mortality rather than by climatic conditions. Field observations, surveys, and temperature-manipulation experiments were conducted at Alexandra Fiord during the spring and summer of 1994, 1995, and 1996; laboratory rearing was conducted under controlled conditions at the University of Victoria in the spring of 1996 and 1997. Immature stages of both species of Gynaephora were described and illustrated, and all species of insect parasitoids using Gynaephora species as hosts at Alexandra Fiord were identified. Life histories and seasonal phenologies for Gynaephora species and their insect parasitoids were elucidated from field studies, and temperature/development relationships for selected stages of most of these species were derived from laboratory rearing. The results of field studies and laboratory rearing were compared and used to formulate predictions about the responses of these insects to predicted global warming. Immature stages of the two species of Gynaephora are easily distinguished by differences in the colour patterns, form, and overall length of the larval hairs and by the structure of their cocoons. Both species of Gynaephora complete metamorphosis and reproduction within a single growing season but spread larval development over a number of years. In G. groenlandica, seven larval instars and annual moulting combine to produce a seven year life cycle whereas G. rossii develops through six larval instars at a rate of two or three moults per year, resulting in a three or four year life cycle. The parasitoid complex at Alexandra Fiord consists of three primary parasitoids, Hyposoter pectinatus (Thomson) (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), Exorista n.sp. (Diptera: Tachinidae), and Chetogena gelida (Coquillett) (Diptera: Tachinidae), and one hyperparasitoid, Cryptus leechi Mason (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae). All of the parasitoids are univoltine, although H. pectinatus may undergo delayed development in some cases, and each of the primary parasitoids relies primarily on a single larval instar for hosts whereas the hyperparasitoid attacks the primary parasitoids during their metamorphosis. Seasonal phenologies of the parasitoids provide optimal access to new hosts but parasitoid-avoidance strategies of Gynaephora larvae ensure that a proportion of their populations escape parasitism. Laboratory rearing showed that the relative timing of host and parasitoid seasonal phenologies is maintained over a broad range of temperatures; therefore, temperature increases predicted under global warming are unlikely to have any great effect on host-parasitoid interactions. However, increased cloudiness associated with the predicted increase in precipitation might have profound effects resulting from lower ground-level temperatures caused by a lack of solar heating. The extent of this effect is uncertain but might lead to reproductive failure in Gynaephora species, with similar repercussions for the insect parasitoids. / Graduate

No description available.

The Karoo is an arid inland plateau in the central and northeastern Cape Province of South Africa and is characterised by sparse, stunted vegetation. The vegetation is rich in species, and over large areas species of Pentzia, which are drought-resistant shrubs, are extremely abundant. These plants are food for stock (mainly sheep), and because the larvae of the Karoo caterpillar periodically occur in sufficient numbers to defoliate the plants, they assume pest status. Fully-fed Loxostege frustalis larvae construct cases in the soil beneath their food plants and they overwinter in these cases. A census of the numbers of larval cases accumulated in the soil, conducted from 1975 to 1980, showed that an expanded distribution of the pentzias is responsible for the periodic larval outbreaks. Further, alternate food plants are an important food supply for L. frustalis larvae when they disperse under crowded conditions The census data for L. frustalis were analysed by constructing partial life tables for the life-history period from case construction to moth emergence. The mortality of 'encased larvae' is useful for assessing the impact of the known L. frustalis natural enemies. The most important natural enemies were the braconids Chelonus curvimaculatus Cameron, Macrocentrus maraisi Nixon and the fungus Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo) Vuillemin. The collective responses of all the natural enemies to the density of L. frustalis encased larvae was direct, but undercompensating, so that areas with more pentzias produced more L. frustais. Strategies for immediate measures to alleviate the Karoo caterpillar problem, and for future research, are discussed. It is concluded that reduction of pentzia populations to acceptable levels and/or supplementing pastures with non-host plants of L. frustalis offer the only practical solutions to the Karoo caterpillar problem. Biological control of L. frustalis is dismissed as an option for reducing the pest status of the Karoo caterpillar

H. armigera larvae are a key stage for pest management in conmercial irrigated cotton crops in South Africa. Effective survey methods for detecting larval populations in the field require an understanding of the biology of the larvae, particularly their feeding habits. Their feeding is central to the development of pest threshold levels for the implementation of integrated control programmes. This applies to routine surveys for the larvae as well as to the damage they cause. Biological characteristics of the larvae are described with the emphasis on the identification of the larval instars, which were consistently five in number in both field and laboratory populations. The distribution of H. armigera larvae on cotton plants in the field was examined, but was found to more or less random; had there been a clear preference for any height zones or compass direction this would have been an obvious avenue for improving the survey methods currently in use. Details of field and laboratory investigations of the selection of feeding sites by the larvae are given. The study confirmed a clear preference by the larvae for cotton buds, flowers and bolls (in the thesis collectively called "fruiting forms"), over leaves. There were indications that the larvae selected flowers more readily than buds or bolls. This "preference", however, is shown to be of no practical value for refining survey methods. Damage levels to cotton due to B. armigera are discussed. Both direct losses and indirect losses due to the abortion of fruiting forms are considered. These criteria are inadequate since they do not take into account the ability of cotton plants to compensate for these losses. It is concluded that this compensation by cotton plants should be taken into account in further studies of the pest status of B. armigera.

Jointed Cactus, Opuntia aurantiaca Lindley (see frontispiece), is the most important weed plant in South Africa, infesting approximately, 1,2 X 10¹° M² and costing approximately R240 000 per annum. Tordon herbicide effectively kills jointed cactus bushes to which it is applied. However, apart from being expensive and damaging to beneficial vegetation, spray programmes have not successfully controlled the weed because most small O. aurantiaca plants are impossible to detect in the field. Biological control may provide a solution to the problem. Two insects, the cochineal bug, Dactylopius austrinus De Lotto and the pyralid moth, Cactoblastis cactorum Berg., already exercise a degree of control over the weed. The introduction into South Africa of other natural enemies such as Zophodia tapiacola (Dyar) from Argentina, South America, may reduce the density of jointed cactus to below an acceptable economic threshold. Any insect considered for release should not colonise and destroy beneficial plants of which the culivated spineless cacti are the most vulnerable. Pre-release studies on Z. tapiacola have shown that it can only colonise a few species of low growing cacti and that it will not damage the large spineless cacti or other desirable plants. Further, the moths are relatively fecund and each larva destroys significant amounts of O. aurantiaca during its development. Consequently, Z. tapiacola is not only considered safe for release but it has the potential to act as a successful biological control agent of O. aurantiaca in South Africa.

While the study of transposable element evolution has been conducted in several model insect organisms such as Anopheles gambiae, Drosophila melanogaster, and Bombyx mori, little investigation has been conducted into the transposable element (TE) evolution within less commonly examined model and non-model taxa within Diptera. In this work we contributed two analyses to close this gap. First, TEs in the lepidopteran, Heliconius melpomene, were characterized, and it was determined that 25% of the genome is composed of TEs. Second, TEs in oestroid and muscid flies were characterized using survey sequencing rather than whole genomes. Comparative analyses were performed on Haematobia irritans, Sarcophaga crassipalpis, Phormia regina, and Cochliomyia hominivorax. TE proportions were 5.95%, 10.00%, 22.43%, and 30.67%, for C. hominivorax, P. regina, S. crassipalpis and H. irritans, respectively. These studies provide new insights into the diversity of TEs in Insecta and suggest that in general, TE diversity is high among insects.