This research compares three approaches to land suitability evaluation, Boolean, Fuzzy AHP and Ideal Point, for barley, wheat and maize crops in the north-western region of Jeffara Plain in Libya. A number of soil and landscape criteria were identified to accommodate the three cash crops under irrigation conditions and their weights specified as a result of discussions with local experts. The findings emphasised that soil factors represented the most sensitive criteria affecting all the crops considered. In contrast, erosion and slope were found to be less important in the study area. Using Boolean logic the results indicated only four suitability classes (highly suitable, moderately suitable, marginally suitable and currently not suitable) for all crops. In contrast, the results obtained by adopting the Fuzzy AHP and Ideal Point approaches revealed that the area of study has a greater degree of subdivision in land suitability classes. Overall, the results of the three approaches indicated that the area under consideration has a good potential to produce barley, wheat and maize under irrigation provided that the water and drainage requirements are met. Comparing the three models showed that each suitability class derived from the Boolean approach is associated with low and high values for joint membership functions when derived from Fuzzy AHP and Ideal Point approaches respectively. In other words, the two fuzzy approaches have shown their ability to explore the uncertainties associated with describing the land properties. The richer overall picture provides an alternative type of land suitability evaluation to Boolean approaches and allows subtle variations in land suitability to be explored. The Fuzzy AHP approach was found to be better than the Ideal Point approach; the latter was biased towards positive and negative ideal values. In the future, field trial plots will be needed to evaluate and validate the results further.

Sand movement is one of the many environmental problems facing humans in the dry and semi-dry areas of the world. This study has investigated the observed changes in sand dune coverage compared to predictions, and has also assessed the impact of sand movement on human activity in the north western coastal region of Libya. The study used three methods. The first was a statistical model proposed by Bagnold, which correlates wind shear velocity with particle size, in order to predict likely sand movement. It was found that 60% of sand grains within the study area have a diameter of less than 0.25 mm, making them liable to be moved by the wind speeds recorded, particularly from March until September, and mostly in a northerly direction. The sand in the western part of the study area had a greater predicted rate of sand transport compared with the sand in the eastern part, which was related to its origin. The second method involved the analysis of satellite images for four different years; from 1986 to 2003. The land cover in the study area was found to have changed over this time. Sand dune area cover had increased, and there were other changes particularly a decline in forest. The third method was the use of a questionnaire (the respondents being land owners), which showed that there was notable loss of crop production (by about a quarter) due to sand movement, and that land owners mostly used afforestation to help control the sand movement in the region. The observed sand movement did not match the predictions based solely on sand grain size and wind speed, and climatic analyses showed no convincing trends which could explain increased sand movement except perhaps an increase in wind gusts. The thesis concludes that the overriding determinant in greater sand movement over the period studied was the loss of forest from the area due to human impacts, which farmers are having to compensate for by planting trees locally to reduce sand movement.

Cette thèse se donne pour but l'analyse de 159 inscriptions ottomanes relevées dans la ville de Tripoli de Libye (période 1555 - 1906). Cet ensemble épigraphique de grande valeur, quasiment inédit, permet d'éclairer l'histoire de la ville et de ses principaux représentants. Chaque inscription, monumentale ou funéraire, est étudiée d'un point de vue historique mais également matériel (décors, supports, écriture et paléographie). La langue (arabe ou parfois osmanli), le contenu et la forme font aussi l'objet d'une étude approfondie. Chaque inscription est analysée, traduite et commentée dans une fiche type (volume 1) ; les analyses des données sont regroupées dans le volume 2 ; les plans, cartes, photos et fac-similés occupent le volume 3. Ce travail met en lumière la richesse patrimoniale et épigraphique de Tripoli et de sa région et ouvre la voie à de nouvelles études et réflexions sur la Régence ottomane. / This dissertation aims at analysing 159 inscriptions from the city of western Tripoli dating from the Ottoman period (1555 - 1906). This epigraphic corpus, for the main part unpublished, stands out for his value, since it sheds more light on the history of the city and on its representatives. Each inscription, be it monumental or funeral, studied from an historical, as well as a material (decoration, media, writing and palaeography) context. The language (Arabic and sometimes Osmanli), the content and the form are thoroughly analysed. Volume 1 includes the corpus of the inscriptions, each of which is analysed, translated and annotated in a standard form. Volume 2 presents the analysis of the data. Finally, volume 3 contains the plans, maps, photos and facsimiles. This study highlights the heritage and epigraphic richness of Tripoli and its region ; it opens the way to new investigations on the Ottoman Regency.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Science. Johannesburg, 20 January 2017. / Sand dune movements can be effectively monitored through the comparison of multitemporal satellite images. However, not all remote sensing platforms are suitable to study sand dunes. This study compares coarse (Landsat 7 and 8) and fine (Worldview 2) resolution platforms, specifically focussing on sand dunes within the Ubārī Sand Sea (Libya), and identified the average migration rate and direction for the linear dunes within a section of the Ubārī sand sea for the time period from 2002-2015 with the use of Landsat imagery. Two band combinations were compared with the use of two supervised classifications. The best combination was found to be red, green, blue and near-infrared band combination and the maximum likelihood classifier. The dune features, namely the crest, slope and interdunal areas were successfully classified based on both the coarse and fine resolution imagery, but the accuracy with which it can be classified are different between the two resolutions. The classifications based on the Worldview 2 imagery had overall accuracies ranging from 55.43 - 60.83% with kappa values of 0.3486 – 0.4225 compared to the overall accuracies and kappa values of the classifications based on the Landsat 8 imagery ranging from 52.11 – 64.67% and 0.3878 – 0.4927 respectively. An average migration rate of 8.64 (± 4.65) m/yr in a generally north western direction was calculated based on the analysis of remote sensing data with some variations in this rate and the size and shape of the dunes. It was found that although Worldview 2 imagery provides more accurate and precise mensuration data, and smaller dunes identified from Worldview data were not delineated clearly on the Landsat imagery. Landsat imagery is sufficient for the studying of dunes at a regional scale. This means that for studies concerned with the dune patterns and movements within sand seas, Landsat is sufficient. In studies where the specific dynamics of specific dunes are to be selected, a finer resolution is required; platforms such as Worldview are needed in order to gain more detailed insight and to link the past and present day climate and environmental change. / MT2017

La position de la France à l’égard de la question Libyenne 1943-1952Cette étude a pour but d’analyser et retracer l’évolution de la position de la France vis-à-vis d’une Libye unie et indépendante lorsque la France était l’un des décideurs du règlement de cette question, notamment avec sa présence au Fezzan (1943-1952). Nous avons montré, dans un premier temps, comment la position française était concentrée sur son empire et voulait faire des compromis en cette époque coloniale, en particulier avec l’Italie. La Seconde Guerre mondiale modifia la situation, une partie de la Libye devint française. La position française oscillait alors entre être pour ou contre l’indépendance. Les députés de l’Assemblée nationale française, ayant d’autres préoccupations, étaient peu intéressés par la question. La France avait compté sur des compromis de l’ONU qui se soldèrent par un échec. La solution fut d’accorder l’autonomie à chaque territoire composant la Libye. D’un côté, la France restait hostile à l’indépendance et de l’autre, elle voulait créer une Union française. Comprendre cette position d’une France à deux visages, l’un colonial et l’autre libre, face à cette question libyenne est le cœur de notre sujet. Enfin, l’échec des quatre puissances à trouver un accord commun ne fit qu’aggraver la politique de la France. L’ONU adopta une Résolution selon laquelle la France était contre l’indépendance depuis son installation au sud libyen. Il fut décidé qu’un commissaire aiderait la Libye à s’acheminer vers l’indépendance et à mettre en place des institutions gouvernementales. En conséquence, la France était hostile à l’indépendance, surtout à cette période. Elle craignait probablement soit de perdre son empire africain au profit des autres puissances, soit elle voulait organiser une politique qui lui assurât une belle sortie de ces territoires.Mots-clés : France, Libye, position, Seconde Guerre mondiale, indépendance, ONU, empire africain. / The position of France as regard the Libyan question 1943-1952This study aims at analysing and relating the evolution of the position of France towards a united independent Libya when France was one of the decision-makers to solve that issue, particularly with its presence on the Fezzan (1943-1952). We have shown at first how the French position was concentrated on its empire and wanted to make compromises at that colonial period with Italy. The Second World War modified the situation; a part of Libya became French. Thus, the French position oscillated between being for and against independence. The French representatives of the National Assembly having other concerns paid little interest in the issue. France had expected compromises with the UNO which were unsuccessful. The solution was to grant autonomy to each territory composing Libya. On the one hand, France stayed hostile to independence; on the other hand, they wanted to create a French union. Understanding the position of a two-faceted France, colonial and free, as to the Libyan issue is the crux of the matter. Lastly, the failure of the Four Allied Powers to find a common agreement only worsened French politics. The UNO adopted a Resolution according to which France had been against independence since its settlement in the south of Libya. It was decided that a commissioner would help Libya become independent and set up governmental institutions. Therefore, France was hostile to independence, above all at that period. They probably feared either to lose their African empire to the benefit of the other powers or they wanted to organise a policy that would assure them an excellent departure from those territories.Link words: France, Libya, position, The Second World War, independence, UNO, African empire.

Notre étude porte sur le potentiel de développement durable du tourisme de santé en Libye. Elle tente d’expliquer la différence entre le tourisme médical et le tourisme de santé dont les ressources naturelles et humaines sont une véritable richesse. Notre problématique de recherche part du constat qu’en Libye, le tourisme de santé pourrait contribuer au développement économique du pays et participer pleinement à une perspective de développement durable, du fait qu’il comporte moins d'effets négatifs sur l’environnement et la population. En effet, depuis 54 ans, l'économie libyenne dépend du pétrole. C’est pour cette raison que nous pensons que le développement durable du tourisme de santé est l'une des alternatives les plus importantes qui permettrait de diversifier les ressources financières à court et moyen terme en enrichissant progressivement l’économie du pays à long terme. Les enjeux de notre recherche s’articulent, donc, autour de trois aspects : écologique, économique et social. Notre objectif consiste à découvrir les ressources naturelles et humaines du pays pour envisager la possibilité de développer durablement le tourisme de santé de façon à ce qu’il ne soit pas uniquement rentable économiquement, mais que les conséquences écologiques ne dépassent pas le seuil tolérable. Sans être en contradiction avec les aspects sociaux, il devrait fonder le développement sur le respect réciproque entre le touriste et la société hôte ; dévoiler les obstacles qu'affronte le tourisme en Libye ; attirer l’attention des responsables libyens sur les ressources touristiques et les moyens de les exploiter ; enrichir la bibliographie francophone qui manque d'études géographiques sur la Libye, en général, et dans le domaine du tourisme de santé en Libye en particulier. Afin de répondre à la problématique de notre ce travail, nous posons six questions : la Libye dispose-t-elle de potentialités touristiques ? Quelles sont ses potentialités en tourisme de santé ? Les Européens ont-ils besoin de se soigner par des méthodes naturelles ? Qu’espèrent-ils trouver en Libye ? Jusqu’à quel point accepteraient-ils les conditions imposées par la société libyenne ? L’État libyen est-il crédible dans sa volonté de mise en oeuvre de développer le tourisme ? L’objectif de cette étude consiste à découvrir les éléments du tourisme et du tourisme de santé en Libye. Afin de confirmer cela, la méthodologie suivie part de deux types de démarche : déductive puis inductive. La première démarche nous a permis d’opérer des relations entre différentes variables puis de les appliquer à l’étude d’un certain nombre d’observations. Grâce à la deuxième démarche, nous avons pu généraliser les résultats obtenus sur les cinq pays de notre échantillon de recherche que sont la France, l’Allemagne, l’Italie, l’Espagne, et le Royaume-Uni, démarche qu’il est possible de généraliser sur le reste des habitants de l’Union Européenne. Pour prendre connaissance du problème et tenter de déterminer la possibilité de réussite et de continuité du tourisme de santé, nous avons mené une large enquête à travers le territoire libyen. D’abord, les questionnaires (support de l’entretien, interviews et échantillons) distribués ont touché les habitants des trois provinces importantes de la Libye : Cyrénaïque, Tripoli et Fezzan. Ainsi, près de 10.000 Km ont été parcourus pour rencontrer un maximum d’informateurs. Ensuite, nous avons réalisé des entretiens avec certains responsables du secteur. Enfin, des analyses chimiques ont été effectuées sur les eaux des lacs des régions citées. À l’issue de cette recherche, les résultats préliminaires obtenus jusque là et qui sont en cours de finalisation peuvent être très satisfaisants eu égard à la problématique posée au départ. / This study focuses on sustainable development potential in the health tourism industry in Libya. It attempts to explain the difference between medical tourism and health tourism, for which the country’s natural and human resources are a veritable wealth. Our research begins with the realisation that health tourism in Libya may contribute to the economic development of the country and participate in long-term sustainable development inasmuch as it has fewer negative effects on the environment and the population. Indeed, for the last 54 years the Libyan economy has been dependent on oil. For this reason and others, we believe that sustainable development in the health tourism field is one of the important alternatives available to diversify financial resources in the short and medium terms and for a progressive long-term replacement of petroleum resources as a source of it come for the country. The challenge in our research is found in three axes: ecological, economic and social. Our objective is to identify the country’s natural and human resources so as to sustainably develop health tourism in such a way that it is not only economically profitable, but that its ecological impact remains within tolerable limits. Development must take place with reciprocal respect between the tourist and the host society and not in contradiction with Libyan society. Our research is also aimed at lifting the veil from the obstacles which confront tourism in Libya today and to draw the attention of Libyan authorities to the country’s touristic resources and to the means necessary to exploit them. Finally, we hope to enrich the French language bibliographic corpus on this subject as few geographical studies are available in French pertaining to Libya in general, and pertaining to health tourism in Libya in particular. To examine this area of problems, we ask six questions : - Does Libya dispose of sufficient touristic resources? - Does the country have sufficient resources for health tourism? - What indicates that Europeans are looking for treatment via natural methods? - What do they hope to find in Libya? - To what extent would visitors from the European Union accept the conditions imposed by Libyan society? - Is the Libyan state sufficiently credible in its quest to develop tourism? The objective of our study is to identify the components of tourism and of health tourism in Libya. In order to meet this challenge, we propose a methodology that includes two approaches, deductive and inductive. The first allowed us to establish relationships between different variables and to use them in the study of certain observations. With the second approach, we generalised our findings and applied them to the five countries of our research sampling: France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom, an approach that could be applied to the rest of the European Union. Now, at the end of this investigation, the preliminary results obtained so far are being finalised and appear to be satisfactory with respect to the initial area of study. Indeed, our research could be the first of its kind in Libya. The existence of a touristic potential based on natural resources and the importance of sustainable development in Libya constitute the primary elements of this research. The seriousness of Libya in its development of tourism is yet another parameter that could be just as promising.

The oil and gas industry in Libya has suffered a number of health and safety accidents including environmental disasters due to the nature of the work involved and the hazardous materials it handles in all facets of exploration and production. Such issues have hitherto not received due attention by the Libyan Authorities. The fact that strict HSE assessment standards are neither well-defined nor established in Libya is not helpful. Furthermore, oil and gas industry in new free Libya has suffered immensely during the 2011 Arab Spring and its rebuilding poses a number of critical HSE challenges. The purpose of the research is to develop and validate a HSE Performance Review Methodology for Libyan oil and gas industry based on clearly defined and measurable aspects for assessment. The thesis starts by performing a comprehensive literature review on all aspects of HSE including universal standards. The review indicates that there is a gap in respect of semi-qualitative methods for assessing HSE performance commensurate with other disciplines. The thesis then identifies four key research problems in the context of Libyan oil and gas industries. Based on these problems, an empirical research was conducted and included three distinct Stages. Stage 1 consisted of a pilot study based on an interview questionnaire with 15 experienced HSE professionals working in oil and gas companies in Libya to help identify key issues pertaining to HSE assessment. Data analysis results for Stage 2 have been used to derive a list of 12 main groups of HSE questions which have then been tested on 84 HSE professionals working in Libya stemming from 35 medium and large oil and gas companies. Modal distribution analyses have been performed to scope down the number of HSE performance factors, which would then be used in Stage 3 of the empirical research. This consisted of issuing the same 84 interviewees with a questionnaire requesting their assessment of how Critical, Important and Less Important were the 60 factors identified. Central Tendency, Variation Ratios and Indices of Diversity were used to successfully analyse the data. With the QAA Subject Review in mind as a potential model for the sought methodology, and a mapping of the four research problems with data analysis results from Stages 1, 2 and 3; six HSE Performance Review Aspects emerged: Prevention, Surveillance, Response, Achievements, Resource and HSE Management and Enhancement – judged and graded using a 1 to 4 scale. The HSE Performance Review methodology has been validated by direct application to five comprehensive studies starting from the self-assessment document written by the companies, an extensive review visit by peer-assessors and a final report showing grades, benchmarks and shortcomings. Lessons learned from the validation exercise have been used to revise the definition of the six Aspects and used to propose an appropriate implementation plan in Libya. The results of the validation exercise are very encouraging and readily confirm that the methodology can be applied to other industry sectors.

La protection juridique du patrimoine culturel en Lybie a connu deux périodes distinctes. La première avant 1869 se caractérisait par l’absence de législation spécifique. Les vestiges apparents et les pièces archéologiques transportables étaient exposés au pillage et au marchandage tandis que le patrimoine immatériel se transmettait par une mémoire populaire qui perdait au fil du temps une partie de son héritage culturel. La seconde période, à partir du mitan du XIXe siècle, est marquée pour le patrimoine libyen par une volonté de protection. Il a connu depuis 1869 jusqu’à nos jours et après l’indépendance, différentes étapes et divers degrés dans la préservation de biens culturels d’un point de vue juridique.Cette recherche doctorale s’intéresse particulièrement à ces quelques 150 années où l’intérêt a été porté à la définition du patrimoine et à la vision de la loi musulmane sur le patrimoine car l’héritage religieux reste très ancré dans l’esprit des gens et constitue une entrave à l’acceptation de plusieurs formes de patrimoine culturel.A partir des différents pouvoirs qui se sont exercés sur le territoire libyen, il est permis de saisir les apports et les limites, les influences et les évolutions, les enjeux et les acteurs, les dispositions normatives et leur application pendant la période ottomane puis l’occupation italienne et enfin l’administration militaire britannique. Ces deux pays européens se sont intéressés à la seule protection du patrimoine culturel matériel et à sa redécouverte. Comme en d’autres espaces, le patrimoine immatériel n’a bénéficié d’une attention particulière de ces deux administrations.Après la proclamation de l’indépendance, l’intérêt porté au patrimoine culturel a été moindre malgré les nombreuses lois et les résolutions promulguées favorables à l’émergence d’un droit national du patrimoine et destinée à protéger les richesses culturelles en raison de la découverte d’importantes quantités de pétrole. Le pays alors oriente son économie vers l’exploitation d’une rente impliquant l’abandon des autres ressources du pays. L’économie a alors été privilégiée et l’Etat n’a donné aucune importance au développement du tourisme archéologique.Par ailleurs, la conscience de l’importance du patrimoine comme constitutive de l’identité culturelle du peuple n’a pas été ancrée dans l’esprit de la plupart des citoyens, notamment à cause des programmes d’enseignement ne faisant pas état de la question patrimoniale. Par contre, ils étaient saturés de sujets nationalistes discriminatoires pour lutter contre la diversité culturelle intérieure et extérieure. La propagande de l’ancien régime s’est efforcée d’agir ainsi durant les décennies. Avec la chute du régime du colonel Kadhafi en 2011, une nouvelle législation patrimoniale a permis de prendre en considération de nouveaux domaines. De possibles évolutions sont à attendre de l’influence des conventions internationales.Cette thèse, par une analyse de l’évolution de la protection juridique du patrimoine culturel libyen et la mise à disposition du corpus normatif élaboré au cours des siècles, est une première étape pour de futures recherches relatives au patrimoine culturel et plus largement à la question du droit libyen. / The juristic protection of cultural heritage in Libya has been divided into two distinct periods. The first before 1869 was characterized by the absence of specific legislation. Apparent remains and transportable archaeological pieces were exposed to pillage and bargaining, while intangible heritage was transmitted through a popular memory that lost part of its cultural heritage over time. The second period, from the mid-nineteenth century, is marked for the Libyan heritage by a desire for protection. From 1869 to the present and after independence, it has had different stages and varying degrees in the preservation of cultural property from a legal point of view.This doctoral research is particularly interested in the last 150 years when the definition of the heritage and the vision of the Muslim law on the heritage were taken into account, because the religious heritage remains deeply in the minds of the people and constitutes an obstacle to the acceptance of several forms of cultural heritage.From the various powers that have been exercised in Libyan territory, it is possible to understand the contributions and limits, the influences and developments, the stakes and the actors, the normative provisions and their application during the Ottoman period, Italian occupation and finally the British military administration. These two European countries have focused on the protection of the tangible cultural heritage and its rediscovery. As in other areas, intangible heritage has received special attention from both administrations.After the proclamation of independence, interest in cultural heritage was lessened despite the many laws and resolutions promulgated favorable to the emergence of a national heritage law and intended to protect cultural wealth due to the discovery large quantities of oil. The country then directs its economy towards the exploitation of a rent implying the abandonment of the other resources of the country. The economy was privileged and the state gave no importance to the development of archaeological tourism.In addition, awareness of the importance of heritage as a constituent part of the cultural identity of the people has not been anchored in the minds of most citizens, in particular because of educational programs that do not Heritage issue. On the other hand, they were saturated with discriminatory nationalist subjects to combat internal and external cultural diversity. The propaganda of the old regime has tried to do so over the decades. With the collapse of the regime of Colonel Gaddafi in 2011, a new patrimonial legislation made it possible to take into consideration new areas. Possible developments can be expected from the influence of international conventions.This thesis, by analyzing the evolution of the legal protection of the Libyan cultural heritage and making available the normative corpus elaborated over the centuries, is a first step for future research on cultural heritage and more broadly on the question Of Libyan law.

Diploma thesis is concerned with the topic of relations between modern media and foreign policy. In a general context of this relation, we focused on the theory of CNN effect, describing it causes and particular manifestations mutual media and policy interactions. We try to analyze CNN effect on single case of armed conflict in Libya and its media coverage by influential American daily papers. By combination of existing scientific methods, we created adapted research method for our case, which is based on quantitative content analyses of all published articles with main topics - armed conflict in Libya - in the period of 33 days till the adoption of Security Council resolution. Main variables of our research was the date of publishing, articles range, section in newspaper and especially "value direction" of article in favor or not in favor of armed intervention to Libya. Analyses of media coverage of this topic were then confronted with factual analyses of topic in same time period. Results of our research confirmed potential relation between media coverage and US state department decision to intervene in Libya conflict. For absolute causality confirmation between these two variables would be necessary much more extensive research. Additional output of this research was confirmation of partial...

Libya, one of less advanced countries, has experienced extensive demographic change in recent decades. Although, efforts have been made to collect descriptive statistics relating to population change (such as Censuses), there has been no serious explanations of demographic change by academics of the reasons behind population trends in Libya.This thesis sought to explore in a rigorous fashion the extent to which socio-economic circumstances, particularly increased levels of female education, has influenced female fertility behaviour. This hypothesis was examined for the population of El Gebel El Akhdar, Libya.The study was based on a sample of 600 married women categorised by location (urban and rural), age (below and above 45 years) education level and socio-economic status. Quantitative and qualitative techniques were used to understand fertility differentials for both the older and younger women included in the survey both in urban and rural areas. It was demonstrated that there were important changes in female fertility behaviour taking place both in relation to the intermediate variables (marriage, post-partum infecundability, contraception) as presented in Bongaarts? theory (1982, 1985) and in relation to socio-economic factors (education, occupation, income, age difference of partner, place of birth and residence). Female education was given special attention in the research following the general research framework of Jeffery and Basu theory (1996).Females with higher educational attainment, and thus higher employability, were characterised by relatively higher ages at first marriage, a smaller family size and a concurrently positive attitude towards approval and use of family planning and using contraceptive. They also engaged in a period of shorter breastfeeding. The inverse emerged as true for uneducated women.In addition to the effect of education on fertility, it emerged that change in female fertility behaviours and attitudes were also influenced by the interaction of many other socio-economic factors such as income, occupation, and partner age difference. On the contrary, the place of birth and place of residence did not help to explain fertility outcomes.