Nearly all serious accidents, in the past twenty years, in which software has been involved can be traced to requirements flaws. Accidents related to or involving safety-critical systems often lead to significant damage to life, property, and environment in which the systems operate. This thesis explores an extension to use case modelling that allows safety concerns to be modelled early in the systems development process. This motivation comes from interaction with systems and safety engineers who routinely rely upon use case modelling during the early stages of defining and analysing system behaviour. The approach of embedded formal methods is adopted. That is, we use one discipline of use case modelling to guide the development of a formal model. This enables a greater precision and formal assurance when reasoning about concerns identified by system and safety engineers as well as the subsequent changes made at the level of use case modelling. The chosen formal method is Event-B, which is re nement based and has consequently enabled the approach to exploit a natural abstractions found within use case modelling. This abstraction of the problem found within use cases help introduce their behaviour into the Event-B model via step-wise re nement. The central ideas underlying this thesis are implemented in, UC-B, a tool support for modelling use cases on the Rodin platform (an eclipse-based development environment for Event-B). UC-B allows the specification of the use cases to be detailed with both informal and formal notation, and supports the automatic generation of an Event-B model given a formally specified use case. Several case studies of use cases with accident cases are provided, with their formalisation in Event-B supported by UC-B tool. An examination of the translation from use cases to Event-B model is discussed, along with the subsequent verification provided by Event-B to the use case model.

This thesis examines resistance to surveillance in everyday life and, in doing so, responds to gaps within the field of surveillance studies through the development of a more rigorous framework for understanding power, surveillance and resistance. This framework reflects the development of more technologically enhanced forms of surveillance and takes into account the cultural and social influences upon notions of privacy and monitoring which hinder opposition to surveillance. As opposed to earlier frameworks for understanding power and surveillance, this framework places resistance as a central focus. This is developed through engagement with the work of Henri Lefebvre and Guy Debord with a focus on their critiques of everyday life, depiction of rhythms for understanding power, the notion of the spectacle for understanding the seductive aspects of surveillance and the use of their practices of resistance as conceptual tools for developing a theoretical framework for understanding practices of resistance to surveillance in everyday life. This framework is developed through the exploration of these conceptual tools within the context of contemporary forms of surveillance and engagement with contemporary theorists whose ideas resonate with those of Henri Lefebvre and Guy Debord in their depiction of contemporary forms of monitoring, control and resistance. Three sites of surveillance are explored within this thesis through which this framework is explored and deployed. The first examines the difficulties of resistance within the urban environment. The second explores the seductive aspects of surveillance through an exploration of how surveillance is consumed and embraced, these things complicating the development of practices of resistance. The third case explores artistic engagements with surveillance practices and illustrates the framework developed through examples from these artists. These case studies demonstrate the importance of the framework developed here. The thesis as a whole suggests new ways of thinking about surveillance and resistance to surveillance.

This research explores the complexities of young peoples’ personal understanding and experiences of violence and safety in public spaces. The research itself is constructed through establishing the interrelationships between the theories, practices and policies of safety and young people. Working through these links has facilitated an original framework for understanding by accessing data using young people’s own experiences and views. There is a significant body of published research exploring young people as offenders but a real absence, especially in the UK literature, of young people as potential victims of violent crime. In particular children’s own conceptualisations of risk, safety and victimisation are little understood. This research explores young people’s thoughts on exactly this. The empirical research draws upon qualitative data derived from semi-structured interviews with 21 young people aged from 10 to 18 years old taken from a socioeconomically mixed area of London. The findings show that irrespective of age, the young people have constructed a very real understanding of safety and risk. Children, even at a young age have developed a myriad of personal safety strategies that involve awareness of teenagers, locations and individuals who they perceive as guardians. However, these strategies emerge without meaningful reference to police or government policy and are largely embedded in a world far away from those in reach of official community safety agents. This research suggests that there needs to be a move away from portraying young people as ‘folk devils’ who sit at the heart of many ‘moral panics’ towards involving them as significant actors and contributors to social policy making by giving them a voice on the political stage.

Warnings are intended to improve safety (decreasing injury, illness and loss) by communicating the presence and nature of a potential hazard and encouraging behaviour that will minimise or avoid a negative outcome. Warnings can be seen as representations of risk, therefore it is likely that an individual’s attitude towards risk, their risk-taking propensity, may affect the way they perceive warnings. Establishing this relationship has important practical implications. If high risk-taking propensity can predict non-compliance, then attempts may be made to increase compliance within high risk-takers by tailoring warnings to such individuals. This thesis aims to explore empirically the relationship between measures of risk-taking propensity and warnings, with potential application to the prevention of hazardous behaviours. Study One investigated the potential relationship between risk-taking propensity and warning perception using an exploratory approach. The results confirmed that various measures of risk-taking propensity predicted warning perceptions, in particular on intentions to comply with the warnings. Studies Two and Three revealed that the relationship between risk-taking and warning perception is domain specific to a certain extent and that it is stronger when contextual information about a hazard is provided. Study Four explored potential underlying mechanisms and revealed that while the mental simulation of positive outcomes of non-compliance was found to be influential, anticipated regret significantly mediated the relationship between risk-taking propensity and intended compliance. Study Five attempted to minimise the discrepancy between high and low risk-takers through warning design manipulation. Despite a strong effect of sensation seeking on intended compliance the warning manipulations implemented had no effect on warning perceptions. This thesis offers a significant contribution to the literature, by establishing empirically the effect of risk propensity on warnings perception and by providing insight into the theoretical underpinnings of this relationship.

Road traffic accidents continue to be a public health problem and are a global issue due to the huge financial burden they place on families and society as a whole. Speed has been identified as a major contributor to the severity of traffic accidents and there is the need for better speed management if road traffic accidents are to be reduced. Over the years various measures have been implemented to manage vehicle speeds. The use of speed cameras and vehicle activated signs in recent times has contributed to the reduction of vehicle speeds to various extents. Speed cameras use punitive measures whereas vehicle activated signs do not so their use depends on various factors. Engineers, planners and decision makers responsible for determining the best place to mount a speed camera or vehicle activated sign along a road have based their decision on experience, site characteristics and available guidelines (Department for Transport, 2007; Department for Transport, 2006; Department for Transport, 2003). These decisions can be subjective and indications are that a more formal and directed approach aimed at bringing these available guidelines together in a model will be beneficial in making the right decision as to where to place a speed camera or vehicle activated sign is to be made. The use of optimisation techniques have been applied in other areas of research but this has been clearly absent in the Transport Safety sector. This research aims to contribute to speed reduction by developing a model to help decision makers determine the optimum location for a speed control device. In order to achieve this, the first study involved the development of an Empirical Bayes Negative Binomial regression accident prediction model to predict the number of fatal and serious accidents combined and the number of slight accidents. The accident prediction model that was used explored the effect of certain geometric and traffic characteristics on the effect of the severity of road traffic accident numbers on selected A-roads within the Nottinghamshire and Leicestershire regions of United Kingdom. On A-roads some model variables (n=10) were found to be statistically significant for slight accidents and (n=6) for fatal and serious accidents. The next study used the accident prediction model developed in two optimisation techniques to help predict the optimal location for speed cameras or vehicle activated signs. Pattern Search and Genetic Algorithms were the two main types of optimisation techniques utilised in this thesis. The results show that the two methods did produce similar results in some instances but different in others. Optimised results were compared to some existing sites with speed cameras some of the results obtained from the optimisation techniques used were within proximity of about 160m. A validation method was applied to the genetic algorithm and pattern search optimisation methods. The pattern search method was found to be more consistent than the genetic algorithm method. Genetic algorithm results produced slightly different results at validation in comparison with the initial results. T-test results show a significant difference in the function values for the validated genetic algorithm (M= 607649.34, SD= 1055520.75) and the validated pattern search function values (M= 2.06, SD= 1.17) under the condition t (79) = 5.15, p=0.000. There is a role that optimisation techniques can play in helping to determine the optimum location for a speed camera or vehicle activated sign based on a set of objectives and specified constraints. The research findings as a whole show that speed cameras and vehicle activated signs are an effective speed management tool. Their deployment however needs to be carefully considered by engineers, planners and decision makers so as to achieve the required level of effectiveness. The use of optimisation techniques which has been generally absent in the Transport Safety sector has been shown in this thesis to have the potential to contribute to improve speed management. There is however no doubt that this research will stimulate interest in this rather new but high potential area of Transport Safety.

Rip currents present a severe hazard to water users worldwide, resulting in over 100 drownings and thousands of lifeguard rescues annually. This thesis examines the demographics of who is effected by rip currents in the UK, what activity they are undertaking, when and where incidents occur, how much the public know, what people have experienced, and how best to educate them. Analysis of 7909 rip current lifeguard rescues (16777 people) across the UK between 2006-2013 highlighted the most at risk group, and subsequent target audience for education, to be male teenagers aged between 13-17 years old (n=2906, 17%). Geographically, the highest incidents occurred on the beaches in the Southwest of England (n=6911, 87%). Incidents mostly occurred outside of lifeguard flagged areas (n=4302, 54%) and mainly involved those using bodyboards (n=5290, 52%). Through the analysis of 407 public beach-based rip current and beach safety questionnaires, it was established that beach users have a poor understanding of rip currents (n=263, 65%) but a good perception of the beach safety flags (n=389, 96%). People with greater knowledge were typically educated by a lifeguard, enter the sea more frequently or have been caught in rip currents themselves. The experiences of 553 people caught in rip currents were analysed using an online questionnaire. The gender split was 69% male (n= 382) to 31% female (n= 171), indicating that males are caught in rip currents more than females. Swimming directly to shore against the rip followed an initial panic (n=108, 34%) for most people caught in a rip. Swimming parallel to the beach was the most remembered, advised, utilised, and promoted safety message. Respondents advocated the use of lifeguards to disseminate rip current safety messages. A new and unique rip current education programme was developed from the synthesis of these results. A lifeguard delivered a pilot programme to 185 teenagers in three schools and two community groups in the Southwest of England. This interactive pilot consisted of exercises using videos, photographs, news reports, and a swimming machine. Levels of rip current knowledge were evaluated before and after, and at regular intervals, to assess knowledge retention. The short-term effects after 3 months were positive, showing statistically significant (p < 0.0005) improvements in mean knowledge levels. This thesis provides a new contribution to the expanding field of social and behavioural rip current research. The development of a unique rip current education programme presents an alternative method for increasing public awareness, and supports the worldwide prevention of rip current incidents and fatalities.

Depuis 1987, l’information préventive sur les risques majeurs est un droit accordé aux populations. Elle est transmise sous diverses modalités : des documents règlementaires (DICRIM, brochure PPI etc.) et une variété de supports et formes d’expressions alternatives (pièces de théâtre, clips, expositions etc.). L’efficacité et l’impact de la première catégorie d’information préventive est déjà évaluée par des questionnaires réalisés auprès des populations. Cependant, ces évaluations ne permettent pas de vérifier si ces informations induisent effectivement des comportements adaptés en condition de stress que procure un évènement extrême. L’impact de la seconde catégorie d’information apparait comme très peu étudiée, alors qu’elle se caractérise par des méthodes et outils originaux, empruntés aux arts et à la pédagogie, et produisant une certaine participation des populations et l’activation du corps, des sens et des émotions. Or les sciences de la communication ont montré que la mobilisation des sens et des émotions favorise la mémorisation des messages.Devant ce constat, cette thèse propose d’évaluer l’influence des différentes formes d’information préventive sur les comportements en situation de crise fictive, par la création et l’expérimentation d’une nouvelle méthode inspirée des arts et des jeux de rôle. Ce faisant, l’étude compare d’une part cette nouvelle méthode à celle par questionnaire, et d’autre part les modalités d’informations réglementaires aux informations alternatives. En se focalisant sur les risques d’inondation, de séisme et d’émanation de gaz toxique, cette comparaison est mise en place sur trois terrains d’étude en Isère : Grenoble, Jarrie et Saint-Egrève. En mettant les enquêtés en situation sur une maquette, en les confrontant à des dilemmes que peut faire émerger l’urgence de la crise, la thèse met en exergue des réactions qui n’apparaissent pas dans les questionnaires : des réactions réflexes, contraires aux connaissances des enquêtés, des hésitations, etc. Les apports et limites des informations préventives sont alors précisées, selon les contextes et profils sociogéographiques des enquêtés. Les résultats montrent l’intérêt de multiplier les modalités d’informations et de les adapter sur des publics particuliers en favorisant l’échange et la contextualisation de la crise. / Since 1987, populations have been granted access to preventive information about major risks. It is passed down through a variety of methods, from regulatory documents (DICRIM, PPI brochure etc.) to original supports and alternative expression forms (plays, video clips, exhibitions etc.). Direct questionnaires to populations already assess the efficiency and impact of first category preventive information. However, these assessments do not check whether the information has actually induced adapted behaviors when confronted to stressful conditions, as is the case with extreme events. On the other hand, the impact of second category information appears under-studied, while it is characterized by original methods and tools. These methods, borrowed from arts and pedagogy, generate an interesting popular response, by activating emotions and resorting to sensory stimulation. As a matter of fact, communication science has shown that mobilizing sense and emotions helps with message memorization.In the face of these observations, this thesis proposes to assess how different ways to pass down preventive information influence behavior in a fictional crisis situation. To that end, a new method inspired from arts and role play has been created and experimented upon.Therefore, the study first compares this new method to the classic questionnaire method, and secondly, it opposes regulatory documents to alternative information. By focusing on floods, earthquakes and gas emanation risks, the comparison has been set up and studied on three different sites in Isère in France: Grenoble, Jarrie et Saint-Egrève. The respondents were presented a 3D model as the operating stage, and then confronted to typical dilemmas that can stem from emergency situations. Here, this thesis has highlighted reactions that surveys cannot reveal: reflex actions sometimes contradicting the respondents’ knowledge, hesitations, etc. Benefits and limits of preventive information are thereby more accurate, and depend on circumstances as well as on the respondents’ sociogeographic profiles. The results demonstrate how necessary it is to multiply and diversify the modes of information transmission, and to adapt them to specific audiences, through experience sharing and crisis contextualization.

Les quatre chapitres de cette thèse s’attachent à répondre à deux questions de recherche.Dans un premier temps, je développe des outils théoriques et statistiques visant à mesurer la sûreté nucléaire malgré la rareté des accidents nucléaires majeurs. En particulier, j’applique des résultats de théorie de la décision afin de déterminer le coût social espéré d’un accident nucléaire majeur, en prenant en compte les attitudes individuelles envers les incertitudes qui le caractérisent. Ensuite, j’utilise des données récentes concernant des incidents de sûreté déclarés dans les réacteurs Français afin de mener une analyse statistique de l’évolution de la sûreté nucléaire au cours des 20 dernières années.Dans la seconde partie de cette thèse, j’aborde la question de l’implémentation de réglementations de la sûreté nucléaire et des politiques post-accidentelles face à des risques rares et catastrophiques. En particulier, j’évalue empiriquement l’effet d’une politique publique française encadrant la surveillance des opérateurs nucléaires par des commissions locales sur le comportement déclaratif des opérateurs et sur leur conformité avec les réglementations existantes. Je propose ensuite une analyse par la théorie des jeux des problèmes de coordination qui existent entre les stratégies de communications de crises et les politiques publiques de prévention et de compensation post-accidentelles. / The four chapters of this Ph.D. thesis follow two research axes.First, I develop theoretical and statistical tools for the measurement of nuclear safety, when rare occurrences of accidents preclude the measurement of objective probabilities of incurring harm. In particular, using recent results from decision theory, I develop a framework for the assessment of the expected social cost of major nuclear accidents that accounts for the attitude of individuals towards the uncertainties that characterize their likelihood of occurrence. Next, I provide an empirical analysis of the French nuclear safety based on a novel dataset containing all the significant safety events reported in the currently-operated French reactors. Despite their minor consequences, I show how valuable information regarding safety can be drawn from this data.In the second part of the thesis, I tackle the question of the implementation of safety regulations and disaster management strategies when risks are rare and catastrophic. I first focus on identifying the causal impact of an information-based incentive mechanism implemented in France on the levels of safety care and compliance exerted by nuclear plant managers. I then develop a cheap-talk model to analyse the coordination of disaster communication strategies with several preparedness and disaster response policies.

The oil and gas industry in Libya has suffered a number of health and safety accidents including environmental disasters due to the nature of the work involved and the hazardous materials it handles in all facets of exploration and production. Such issues have hitherto not received due attention by the Libyan Authorities. The fact that strict HSE assessment standards are neither well-defined nor established in Libya is not helpful. Furthermore, oil and gas industry in new free Libya has suffered immensely during the 2011 Arab Spring and its rebuilding poses a number of critical HSE challenges. The purpose of the research is to develop and validate a HSE Performance Review Methodology for Libyan oil and gas industry based on clearly defined and measurable aspects for assessment. The thesis starts by performing a comprehensive literature review on all aspects of HSE including universal standards. The review indicates that there is a gap in respect of semi-qualitative methods for assessing HSE performance commensurate with other disciplines. The thesis then identifies four key research problems in the context of Libyan oil and gas industries. Based on these problems, an empirical research was conducted and included three distinct Stages. Stage 1 consisted of a pilot study based on an interview questionnaire with 15 experienced HSE professionals working in oil and gas companies in Libya to help identify key issues pertaining to HSE assessment. Data analysis results for Stage 2 have been used to derive a list of 12 main groups of HSE questions which have then been tested on 84 HSE professionals working in Libya stemming from 35 medium and large oil and gas companies. Modal distribution analyses have been performed to scope down the number of HSE performance factors, which would then be used in Stage 3 of the empirical research. This consisted of issuing the same 84 interviewees with a questionnaire requesting their assessment of how Critical, Important and Less Important were the 60 factors identified. Central Tendency, Variation Ratios and Indices of Diversity were used to successfully analyse the data. With the QAA Subject Review in mind as a potential model for the sought methodology, and a mapping of the four research problems with data analysis results from Stages 1, 2 and 3; six HSE Performance Review Aspects emerged: Prevention, Surveillance, Response, Achievements, Resource and HSE Management and Enhancement – judged and graded using a 1 to 4 scale. The HSE Performance Review methodology has been validated by direct application to five comprehensive studies starting from the self-assessment document written by the companies, an extensive review visit by peer-assessors and a final report showing grades, benchmarks and shortcomings. Lessons learned from the validation exercise have been used to revise the definition of the six Aspects and used to propose an appropriate implementation plan in Libya. The results of the validation exercise are very encouraging and readily confirm that the methodology can be applied to other industry sectors.

Le présent travail de recherche a pour objet l'étude des apports des pratiques d'utilisation des outils de gestion collaboratifs par les parties prenantes du processus de contrôle en gestion des risques. Face aux enjeux multiples pour réduire la vulnérabilité des organisations, le contrôle tient une place particulière. Avec le développement de l'informatique et l'accroissement des risques il s'est naturellement complexifié. Il est aujourd'hui partagé entre des acteurs humains (organismes de contrôle, industriels, services de prévention des risques, etc.) et non-humains (systèmes d'information, logiciels, systèmes de management, etc.), incluant ainsi la dimension de travail collaboratif. Afin de proposer une modélisation du système d'acteurs et des différents échanges permis par l'approche collaborative, trois objets sociologiques sont mobilisées : la Théorie de la Régulation Sociale (TRS), introduisant le concept de régulation, la Théorie de l'Acteur-Réseau (TAR), autorisant une étude asymétrique des acteurs et une maitrise de l'a priori, et le travail collaboratif, regroupant la collaboration et l'ingénierie logicielle. La conduite d'une expérimentation terrain et le déploiement d'un questionnaire sur les pratiques du travail collaboratif permettent de vérifier concrètement les apports des systèmes d'information dans le cadre d'une approche collaborative du contrôle. L'originalité de cette démarche réside dans la prise en compte des interrelations entre chacun des sous-processus du contrôle et la confrontation d'une expérimentation terrain avec une enquête prospective généralisée. / The current research aims to study collaborative working contributions in risk management control processes. Control is needed in risk management processes facing complexity. Indeed, IT development and risk increase led to increase control complexity. It is now shared between human actors (inspectors, industrialist, OHS department, etc.) and non-human (IT, software, management systems, etc.) including a collaborative working dimension. In order to propose a model of the system of actors and different exchanges allowed by the collaborative approach, three sociological objects are mobilized: the Social Regulation Theory (SRT), introducing the concept of regulation, the actor- Network Theory (ANT), authorizing an asymmetric study of actors, and collaborative working, combining collaboration and software engineering. To verify IT contributions as part of a collaborative approach a field trial and a survey on collaborative work practices were conducted. The novelty of this approach lies in the consideration of the interrelationships between each control sub-process and the confrontation of a field trial with a generalized prospective survey.