Methods used to process raw Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data can sometimes obscure the digital signatures indicative of an archaeological site. This thesis explains the negative effects that certain LiDAR data processing procedures can have on the preservation of an archaeological site. This thesis also presents methods for effectively integrating LiDAR with other forms of mapping data in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) environment in order to improve LiDAR archaeological signatures by examining several pre-Columbian Native American shell middens located in Canaveral National Seashore Park (CANA).

Enhanced understanding of forest stocks and dynamics can be gained through improved forest measurement, which is required to assist with sustainable forest management decisions, meet Australian and international reporting needs, and improve research efforts to better respond to a changing climate. Integrated sampling schemes that utilise a multi-scale approach, with a range of data sourced from both field and remote sensing, have been identified as a way to generate the required forest information. Given the multi-scale approach proposed by these schemes, it is important to understand how scale potentially affects the interpretation and reporting of forest from a range of data. ¶ To provide improved forest assessment at a range of scales, this research has developed a strategy for facilitating tree and stand level retrieval of structural attributes within an integrated multi-scale analysis framework. The research investigated the use of fine-scale (~1m) airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) data (1,125 ha in central Queensland, and 60,000 ha in NE Victoria) to calibrate other remotely sensed data at the two study sites. The strategy refines forest structure mapping through three-dimensional (3D) modelling combined with empirical relationships, allowing improved estimation of maximum and predominant height, as well as foliage and crown cover at multiple scales. Tree stems (including those in the sub-canopy) were located using a height scaled crown openness index (HSCOI), which integrated the 3D density of canopy elements within the vertical profile into a two-dimensional spatial layer. The HSCOI modelling also facilitated the reconstruction of the 3D distribution of foliage and branches (of varying size and orientation) within the forest volume. ¶ Comparisons between forests at the Queensland and NE Victorian study sites indicated that accurate and consistent retrieval of cover and height metrics could be achieved at multiple scales, with the algorithms applicable for semi-automated use in other forests with similar structure. This information has facilitated interpretation and evaluation of Landsat imagery and ICESat satellite laser data for forest height and canopy cover retrieval. The development of a forest cover translation matrix allows a range of data and metrics to be compared at the plot scale, and has initiated the development of continuous transfer functions between the metrics and datasets. These data have been used subsequently to support interpretation of SAR data, by providing valuable input to 2D and 3D radar simulation models. Scale effects have been identified as being significant enough to influence national forest class reporting in more heterogeneous forests, thus allowing the most appropriate use and integration of remote sensed data at a range of scales. An empirically based forest minimum mapping area of 1 ha for reporting is suggested. The research has concluded that LiDAR can provide calibration information just as detailed and possibly more accurately than field measurements for many required forest attributes. Therefore the use of LiDAR data offers a unique opportunity to bridge the gap between accurate field plot structural information and stand to landscape scale sampling, to provide enhanced forest assessment in Australia.

Le GPS est la technique de positionnement global la plus utilisée ; sa précision planimétrique en mode géodésique atteint le niveau millimétrique. Cependant, une limite importante réside dans la détermination de la composante verticale (3-15~mm pour des sessions de 24~h) dont l'estimation est dégradée par la perturbation de la propagation des signaux lors de la traversée de la troposphère.<br />L'action NIGPS, menée en collaboration par l'IGN et le SA (CNRS), vise à développer une correction de ces effets atmosphériques basée sur le sondage de l'humidité à l'aide d'un lidar Raman vapeur d'eau à visée multi-angulaire. Ce travail de thèse s'inscrit dans la continuité des travaux présentés en 2005 par Jérôme Tarniewicz et consiste à poursuivre l'étude méthodologique, les développements instrumentaux et la validation expérimentale de l'analyse conjointe des observations GPS et lidar.<br />Après l'étude à partir de simulations numériques de l'effet de la troposphère sur le GPS et de sa correction, nous nous intéressons à la restitution précise de mesures de vapeur d'eau par lidar Raman. Les données acquises lors de la campagne VAPIC permettent de vérifier l'impact de la troposphère sur le GPS. La comparaison des observations lidar à celles issues d'autres instruments permet de valider la mesure lidar et souligne la capacité de cette technique à restituer des variations rapides de vapeur d'eau. Une première évaluation de la correction des observations GPS par des mesures lidar au zénith est réalisée sur des sessions GPS de 6 h et montre l'apport de cette technique sur les cas considérés. Ces résultats devraient cependant être améliorés grâce la prise en compte de visées lidar obliques.

Le travail de thèse s'organise en plusieurs parties. Le premier chapitre décrit le cadre scientifique dans lequel s'inscrit la thèse : branche atmosphérique du cycle du carbone, changement climatique et protocole de Kyoto, réseau de mesures actuel et principales missions spatiales. Ce chapitre montre notamment comment s'insèrent les différents aspects que j'ai traité pendant la thèse: modélisation, expérimentation et études théoriques dans le cadre plus général de la restitution des flux de surface et de la mesure du C02 atmosphérique. Au final, je m'intéresse plus particulièrement à l'apport scientifique et aux objectifs d'une mesure de C02 atmosphérique par Lidar DIAL à partir de l'espace. Dans le chapitre II, on s'intéresse au domaine d'étude et plus particulièrement à l'évolution du C02 atmosphérique à la méso-échelle. La représentativité temporelle horizontale et verticale d'une mesure de C02 est évaluée dans le but de cadrer l'étude expérimentale. Par ailleurs on y étudie les processus à l'origine de la variabilité du rapport de mélange dans les différentes parties de 1'atmosphère pour mettre au point une méthode de mesure efficace permettant de rendre compte des phénomènes observés. Nous verrons comment cc travail d'étude du C02 atmosphérique à la moyenne échelle a permis, entre autre, de mettre au point une méthode originale de restitution et de caractérisation des flux de surface naturels dans la région du Sud-Ouest parisien. Fort de cette étude et des objectifs de mesure décrits dans le chapitre I, le chapitre III discute la mesure DIAL avant d'en rechercher une optimisation pour obtenir le maximum de précision sur la mesure de concentration. Un soin tout particulier est porté à la spectroscopie, à l'optimisation de paramètre tels que l'épaisseur optique de la colonne d'air sondée et l'énergie des impulsions lasers émises dans l'atmosphère, et à l'analyse des erreurs statistiques et systématiques. Le chapitre IV décrit le système expérimental réalisé au Laboratoire de Météorologie dynamique pendant ces trois années: LIDIA. " Lidar pour la mesure du Dioxyde de carbone Atmosphérique ". Le Lidar DIAL Doppler a été conçu à partir d'un Lidar Doppler déjà existant au Service d'Aéronomie [Bruneau-00, Le Rille-02]. Le chapitre décrit le Lidar, les différentes transformations, les éléments ajoutés et les performances du système global dans le cadre des mesures DIAL. Un intérêt particulier est donné au traitement de signal. Suit alors la partie principale du travail de recherche avec la présentation et la discussion des résultats expérimentaux. Des mesures réalisées de jour et de nuit en fin d'année 2004 et pendant l'année 2005 y sont décrites pour illustrer les différentes possibilités d'une mesure DIAL pour répondre aux objectifs scientifiques décrits dans le chapitre I : mesures intégrées au niveau du sol et validation avec des mesures in-situ, mesures verticales dans la couche limite atmosphérique (CLA), utilisation des cibles nuageuses, mesures dans la troposphère libre et mesures résolues dans la CLA. Nous voyons notamment l'apport de mesures de vent et de vitesses verticales simultanées avec des mesures de concentration pour expliquer les processus naturels ou anthropiques à l'origine de la variation temporelle du rapport de mélange en CO2. Le dernier chapitre s'appuie sur le travail expérimental précédent pour prévoir les performances de futurs systèmes de mesure DIAL aéroporté ou spatial capable de répondre aux objectifs scientifiques à moyen et long terme. Différentes perspectives de travail pour l'amélioration du système expérimental et pour la conception d'un nouveau système y sont abordées. Enfin une conclusion permet de souligner et de rassembler les principaux résultats du travail de thèse.

<p>Discharges of warfare bio aerosol clouds are powerful weapons in war and terror situations. A discharge of a small amount of a contagious substance can obliterate large areas. The discharges can usually not be seen with bare eyes, hence some tool needs to be used to find bio aerosol cloud discharges. One way is to use a lidar for the detection of clouds. By sending out a laser pulse into the atmosphere some of the light is scattered back. By measuring the backscattered light, the aerosol structure of the atmosphere can be obtained. If a cloud is hit by the laser beam, an increase of light is observed and the cloud can be detected and tracked.In this thesis a tool for simulating the elastic backscattered light has been developed. A graphical user interface for easier handling has also been developed. For automatic detection of clouds some detection algorithms have been tested. Another graphical user interface for presentation of the simulated lidar signals has also been constructed.The simulator is working well. A lot of different parameters can be changed for the lidar system, the atmosphere and the cloud type. The model works as a helpful tool for specifications of an elastic lidar system to be developed and also as a guide for expected system performance and ways to present the results.</p>

<p>Conventional airborne laser scanner systems output the three-dimensional coordinates of the surface location hit by the laser pulse. Data storage capacity and processing speeds available today has made it possible to digitally sample and store the entire reflected waveform, instead of only extracting the coordinates. Research has shown that return waveforms can give even more detailed insights into the vertical structure of surface objects, surface slope, roughness and reflectivity than the conventional systems. One of the most important advantages with registering the waveforms is that it gives the user the possibility to himself define the way range is calculated in post-processing. </p><p>In this thesis different techniques have been tested to visualize a waveform data set in order to get a better understanding of the waveforms and how they can be used to improve methods for classification of ground objects.</p><p>A pulse detection algorithm, using the EM algorithm, has been implemented and tested. The algorithm output position and width of the echo pulses. One of the results of this thesis is that echo pulses reflected by vegetation tend to be wider than those reflected by for example a road. Another result is that up till five echo pulses can be detected compared to two echo pulses that the conventional system detects.</p>

The two main challenges of the twenty-first century are the scarcity of energy sources and global warming; trigged by the emission of greenhouse gases. In this context, solar energy became increasingly relevant. Because it makes optimal use of the resources, minimizes environmental impacts, and is sustainable over time. However, before installing solar panels, it is convenient pre-assessing the amount of energy that a building can harvest. This study proposes a methodology to semi-automatically generate information a building scale; on a large area. This thesis integrates airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) and WoldView-2 satellite data for modelling the solar energy potential of building rooftops in San Francisco, California. The methodology involved building detection solar potential analysis, and estimations at building scale. First, the outline of building rooftops is extracted using an object-based approach. Next, the solar modelling is carried out using the solar radiation analysis tool in ArcGIS, Spatial Analyst. Then, energy that could potentially be harvested by each building rooftop is estimated. The energy estimation is defined in economic and environmental terms.

Aquatic mercury (Hg) contamination caused by industrial Hg emissions, atmospheric transport and deposition to sensitive ecosystems is an ongoing concern in many parts of the world. Boreal ecosystems are particularly sensitive to Hg deposition, and large soil-Hg burdens in these regions may prolong recovery of Hg impacted surface waters for many decades. Four studies were undertaken to examine interactions between watershed characteristics, hydro-climatic variability and terrestrial-aquatic export of key chemical parameters linked to watershed Hg sensitivity. Two new quantitative techniques, hydrogeomorphic edge detection and characteristic morphology analysis, were developed to explicitly map and characterize the spatial distribution, geomorphic form and hydro-biogeochemical function of forested wetlands using airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) surveys. The results demonstrate the critical contribution of forested wetlands and upland-wetland interactions to the production and mobilization of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and methyl-mercury (MeHg) - respectively - to downstream surface waters. Results of strategic, event-based hydrochemical sampling also demonstrate the critical contribution of summer high-flow periods to terrestrial-aquatic MeHg export. Finally, an analysis of historical monitoring databases of streamflow volume, hydrochemistry and Hg concentrations in yearling perch in two contrasting headwater lake basins was conducted. The results indicate strong potential for short-term, hydrologically-driven shifts in terrestrial-aquatic coupling and watershed Hg sensitivity, but only for the wetland-dominated, humic lake that exhibited consistent, summertime hypolimnetic anoxia. These various findings suggest that accurate characterization of watershed structure can help researchers identify first-order limitations on whole-watershed methylation efficiency, particularly in relation to hydro-climatic drivers of terrestrial-aquatic coupling in Boreal headwater regions.

Aquatic mercury (Hg) contamination caused by industrial Hg emissions, atmospheric transport and deposition to sensitive ecosystems is an ongoing concern in many parts of the world. Boreal ecosystems are particularly sensitive to Hg deposition, and large soil-Hg burdens in these regions may prolong recovery of Hg impacted surface waters for many decades. Four studies were undertaken to examine interactions between watershed characteristics, hydro-climatic variability and terrestrial-aquatic export of key chemical parameters linked to watershed Hg sensitivity. Two new quantitative techniques, hydrogeomorphic edge detection and characteristic morphology analysis, were developed to explicitly map and characterize the spatial distribution, geomorphic form and hydro-biogeochemical function of forested wetlands using airborne Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) surveys. The results demonstrate the critical contribution of forested wetlands and upland-wetland interactions to the production and mobilization of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and methyl-mercury (MeHg) - respectively - to downstream surface waters. Results of strategic, event-based hydrochemical sampling also demonstrate the critical contribution of summer high-flow periods to terrestrial-aquatic MeHg export. Finally, an analysis of historical monitoring databases of streamflow volume, hydrochemistry and Hg concentrations in yearling perch in two contrasting headwater lake basins was conducted. The results indicate strong potential for short-term, hydrologically-driven shifts in terrestrial-aquatic coupling and watershed Hg sensitivity, but only for the wetland-dominated, humic lake that exhibited consistent, summertime hypolimnetic anoxia. These various findings suggest that accurate characterization of watershed structure can help researchers identify first-order limitations on whole-watershed methylation efficiency, particularly in relation to hydro-climatic drivers of terrestrial-aquatic coupling in Boreal headwater regions.

Airborne lidar bathymetry (ALB) is a method used to survey and map coastal and littoral zones. Along with extracting seafloor depth and reflectance in the surveyed area, a fundamental requirement of these surveys is to detect underwater targets, hazards, or obstructions. The ability to detect underwater targets depends on a target's dimensions and reflectance, the depth and turbidity of the water, system and survey configuration, data processing capabilities, and algorithmic sophistication. Understanding the effects of each of these factors on the performance of underwater target detection is essential in determining the target detection capabilities of a proposed ALB system. After detailing the development of a simulation environment to model received ALB system waveforms, this work explores the theoretical target detection capabilities of an ALB system.