Für den wirtschaftlichen Erfolg und die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit von Industrieunternehmen ist die Gestaltung effizienter, funktionsfähiger und an die Erfordernisse des Produktionsumfeldes angepasster Fabriksysteme von entscheidender Bedeutung. Die zielgerichtete Entwicklung und Optimierung solcher Systeme im Rahmen der Fabrikplanung stellt angesichts sich kontinuierlich ändernder Rahmenbedingungen, der Vielzahl zu berücksichtigender Systemelemente und Interdependenzen sowie der Langlebigkeit des Systems eine besondere Herausforderung dar. Um in dem Kontext die Identifikation, Erarbeitung und Auswahl langfristig erfolgversprechender Fabrikkonzepte zu unterstützen, wird innerhalb der vorliegenden Arbeit ein umfassendes Instrumentarium zur Durchführung lebenszyklusorientierter Wirtschaftlichkeitsanalysen und -bewertungen entwickelt. Im Kern basierend auf dem Life Cycle Costing dient dieses vorrangig dazu, sämtliche der mit den fabrikplanerischen Festlegungen verbundenen monetären Konsequenzen systematisch zu erfassen und zu beurteilen. Die instrumentelle Ausgestaltung orientiert sich dabei an den Informationsgewinnungs- und Entscheidungsstrukturen der Fabrikplanung und umfasst Ansätze für den Umgang mit der aus der Vielzahl an Systemelementen resultierenden Komplexität ebenso wie konzeptionelle Modifikationen für eine ergänzende Bewertung nicht-monetärer Zielgrößen. Vor dem Hintergrund zunehmender Anforderungen an die Nachhaltigkeit von Fabriksystemen wird das entwickelte Instrumentarium am Beispiel der Bewertung von Energieeffizienzmaßnahmen konkretisiert und angesichts der Fülle der für lebenszyklusorientierte Analysen und Bewertungen erforderlichen Daten und Informationen um ein Rahmenkonzept zu dessen IT-gestützter Realisierung erweitert. / The development of efficient and functioning factories adapted to the requirements of the production environment is of crucial importance for the economic success and competitiveness of industrial companies. However, the targeted configuration and optimization of such systems is a particular challenge, since constantly changing conditions, a multitude of system elements and interdependencies, and the longevity of the system have to be taken into account. In order to support the identification, generation, and selection of promising planning solutions, a comprehensive instrument for life-cycle oriented profitability analyses and evaluations is developed in this thesis. Essentially basing on Life Cycle Costing it is primarily intended to systematically determine and assess all monetary consequences associated with the generated planning solutions. The instrumental design is oriented toward the structures of information retrieval and decision making in factory planning. It also comprises approaches for handling the complexity that results from the multitude of system elements as well as conceptual modifications for the complementary evaluation of non-monetary assessment criteria. Against the background of increasing demands on the sustainability of factory systems, the developed instrument is exemplarily specified for the evaluation of energy efficiency measures. Furthermore, considering the abundance of data and information required for life-cycle oriented analyses and evaluations in factory planning, the instrument is enhanced by a conceptual framework for its IT- supported implementation.

<p>The purpose of this master thesis is to develop a model for assessing cost effectiveness of facility layouts. A critical literature review of the available relevant models as well as theories was performed in accordance to this purpose. After this a model was developed in order to cover lacks in existing theories. The aim of the model is to evaluate different facility layouts, from both economical and working environmental aspects. The model as a whole is about evaluating, creating and selecting the most preferable facility layout. In this thesis a case study has been performed for testing the developed model. The case company for this testing was the Mail Terminal in Alvesta, which is a part of Posten Sweden AB. The mail terminal receives, sorts and distributes the mail further. The result of this thesis is that, by following the model the authors were able to evaluate all the layouts and also to create the most preferable one. This thesis provides a general model in a structured way, primary aimed to be used for manufacturing companies. Further researches could be to test the model on service producing companies and to define to what extent the model can be generalised.</p> / <p>Syftet med denna magisteruppsats är att utveckla en modell för att utvärdera kostnadseffektiviteten av anläggningslayouter. En kritisk litteraturundersökning av tillgängliga relevanta modeller samt teorier genomfördes i enlighet med syftet. Därefter utvecklades en modell för att täcka brister i existerande teorier. Syftet med modellen är att utvärdera olika layouter, från både ett ekonomiskt- och arbetsmiljös- perspektiv. Modellen i sin helhet handlar om att utvärdera, skapa och välja den mest fördelaktiga layouten. En fallstudie har genomförts i denna uppsats för att testa den skapade modellen. Fallföretaget för att testa modellen var Postterminalen i Alvesta, som är en del av Posten Sverige AB. Postterminal tar emot, sorterar och distribuerar posten vidare. Resultatet av denna uppsats är att genom att använda modellen lyckades författarna utvärdera alla layouter och även skapa den mest fördelaktiga layouten. Denna uppsats bidrar med en strukturerad generell model, som främst riktar sig till producerande företag. Fortsatt forskning skulle kunna vara att testa modellen på service baserade företag och att definiera till vilken omfattning man kan generalisera modellen.</p>

The purpose of this master thesis is to develop a model for assessing cost effectiveness of facility layouts. A critical literature review of the available relevant models as well as theories was performed in accordance to this purpose. After this a model was developed in order to cover lacks in existing theories. The aim of the model is to evaluate different facility layouts, from both economical and working environmental aspects. The model as a whole is about evaluating, creating and selecting the most preferable facility layout. In this thesis a case study has been performed for testing the developed model. The case company for this testing was the Mail Terminal in Alvesta, which is a part of Posten Sweden AB. The mail terminal receives, sorts and distributes the mail further. The result of this thesis is that, by following the model the authors were able to evaluate all the layouts and also to create the most preferable one. This thesis provides a general model in a structured way, primary aimed to be used for manufacturing companies. Further researches could be to test the model on service producing companies and to define to what extent the model can be generalised. / Syftet med denna magisteruppsats är att utveckla en modell för att utvärdera kostnadseffektiviteten av anläggningslayouter. En kritisk litteraturundersökning av tillgängliga relevanta modeller samt teorier genomfördes i enlighet med syftet. Därefter utvecklades en modell för att täcka brister i existerande teorier. Syftet med modellen är att utvärdera olika layouter, från både ett ekonomiskt- och arbetsmiljös- perspektiv. Modellen i sin helhet handlar om att utvärdera, skapa och välja den mest fördelaktiga layouten. En fallstudie har genomförts i denna uppsats för att testa den skapade modellen. Fallföretaget för att testa modellen var Postterminalen i Alvesta, som är en del av Posten Sverige AB. Postterminal tar emot, sorterar och distribuerar posten vidare. Resultatet av denna uppsats är att genom att använda modellen lyckades författarna utvärdera alla layouter och även skapa den mest fördelaktiga layouten. Denna uppsats bidrar med en strukturerad generell model, som främst riktar sig till producerande företag. Fortsatt forskning skulle kunna vara att testa modellen på service baserade företag och att definiera till vilken omfattning man kan generalisera modellen.

Für den wirtschaftlichen Erfolg und die Wettbewerbsfähigkeit von Industrieunternehmen ist die Gestaltung effizienter, funktionsfähiger und an die Erfordernisse des Produktionsumfeldes angepasster Fabriksysteme von entscheidender Bedeutung. Die zielgerichtete Entwicklung und Optimierung solcher Systeme im Rahmen der Fabrikplanung stellt angesichts sich kontinuierlich ändernder Rahmenbedingungen, der Vielzahl zu berücksichtigender Systemelemente und Interdependenzen sowie der Langlebigkeit des Systems eine besondere Herausforderung dar. Um in dem Kontext die Identifikation, Erarbeitung und Auswahl langfristig erfolgversprechender Fabrikkonzepte zu unterstützen, wird innerhalb der vorliegenden Arbeit ein umfassendes Instrumentarium zur Durchführung lebenszyklusorientierter Wirtschaftlichkeitsanalysen und -bewertungen entwickelt. Im Kern basierend auf dem Life Cycle Costing dient dieses vorrangig dazu, sämtliche der mit den fabrikplanerischen Festlegungen verbundenen monetären Konsequenzen systematisch zu erfassen und zu beurteilen. Die instrumentelle Ausgestaltung orientiert sich dabei an den Informationsgewinnungs- und Entscheidungsstrukturen der Fabrikplanung und umfasst Ansätze für den Umgang mit der aus der Vielzahl an Systemelementen resultierenden Komplexität ebenso wie konzeptionelle Modifikationen für eine ergänzende Bewertung nicht-monetärer Zielgrößen. Vor dem Hintergrund zunehmender Anforderungen an die Nachhaltigkeit von Fabriksystemen wird das entwickelte Instrumentarium am Beispiel der Bewertung von Energieeffizienzmaßnahmen konkretisiert und angesichts der Fülle der für lebenszyklusorientierte Analysen und Bewertungen erforderlichen Daten und Informationen um ein Rahmenkonzept zu dessen IT-gestützter Realisierung erweitert. / The development of efficient and functioning factories adapted to the requirements of the production environment is of crucial importance for the economic success and competitiveness of industrial companies. However, the targeted configuration and optimization of such systems is a particular challenge, since constantly changing conditions, a multitude of system elements and interdependencies, and the longevity of the system have to be taken into account. In order to support the identification, generation, and selection of promising planning solutions, a comprehensive instrument for life-cycle oriented profitability analyses and evaluations is developed in this thesis. Essentially basing on Life Cycle Costing it is primarily intended to systematically determine and assess all monetary consequences associated with the generated planning solutions. The instrumental design is oriented toward the structures of information retrieval and decision making in factory planning. It also comprises approaches for handling the complexity that results from the multitude of system elements as well as conceptual modifications for the complementary evaluation of non-monetary assessment criteria. Against the background of increasing demands on the sustainability of factory systems, the developed instrument is exemplarily specified for the evaluation of energy efficiency measures. Furthermore, considering the abundance of data and information required for life-cycle oriented analyses and evaluations in factory planning, the instrument is enhanced by a conceptual framework for its IT- supported implementation.

The study was conducted to establish what effect life cycle cost forecasting accuracy has on project valuations with special reference to a global mining organisation’s coal business unit in South Africa. The research stemmed from the fact that the organisation identified through its own research in 2009 that its capital projects rarely met the originally budgeted life cycle cost forecasts estimated during the project development stages. These forecasts were generally found to be underestimated. Overrunning of cost budgets in project management terms results in project failure. The study employed two main empirical research sections. The first section took a case study approach where past implemented project results were collated and analysed. The main aim was to determine how close to reality the original life cycle cost estimates were, and secondly how any variances to the originally budgeted costs impacted on the anticipated project value post implementation. Secondly, the study employed in-depth interviews with seven project specialists within the organisation that were also involved in the development stages of the investigated projects. The study concluded that life cycle cost forecasts are very important project business case inputs and that the necessary time and effort should go into developing them so as to ensure that they are as comprehensive and accurate as possible. The sensitivity analysis that was conducted revealed that a coal mining project business case is the second most sensitive to variations in life cycle costs after variations in commodity price. The results indicated that a 20% increase in life cycle costs can destroy an equivalent project value of up to 100%. Accurate life cycle cost forecasting is therefore essential in order to estimate to a certain degree of accuracy the value of a project which in turn will be used to inform capital investment decision making. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

The study was conducted to establish what effect life cycle cost forecasting accuracy has on project valuations with special reference to a global mining organisation’s coal business unit in South Africa. The research stemmed from the fact that the organisation identified through its own research in 2009 that its capital projects rarely met the originally budgeted life cycle cost forecasts estimated during the project development stages. These forecasts were generally found to be underestimated. Overrunning of cost budgets in project management terms results in project failure. The study employed two main empirical research sections. The first section took a case study approach where past implemented project results were collated and analysed. The main aim was to determine how close to reality the original life cycle cost estimates were, and secondly how any variances to the originally budgeted costs impacted on the anticipated project value post implementation. Secondly, the study employed in-depth interviews with seven project specialists within the organisation that were also involved in the development stages of the investigated projects. The study concluded that life cycle cost forecasts are very important project business case inputs and that the necessary time and effort should go into developing them so as to ensure that they are as comprehensive and accurate as possible. The sensitivity analysis that was conducted revealed that a coal mining project business case is the second most sensitive to variations in life cycle costs after variations in commodity price. The results indicated that a 20% increase in life cycle costs can destroy an equivalent project value of up to 100%. Accurate life cycle cost forecasting is therefore essential in order to estimate to a certain degree of accuracy the value of a project which in turn will be used to inform capital investment decision making. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

Thesis (MScEng (Department of Electrical Engineering))--University of Cape Town, 2008. / Energy drives technological societies. Developing countries such as South Africa are caught between the desperate need for economic growth and the emerging obligations to the environment. Efficient technologies can be used to mitigate the impact of these seemingly conflicting requirements in urban and rural environments. In this thesis the commercially available white light-emitting diode (LED) with its inherent efficiency, longevity and mechanical strength, is used to show, that success in energy efficiency can be obtained. Two cases are used to illustrate the need for efficient demand-side technology: the electricity shortages of the Western Cape Province in South Africa and a white LED pilot project in Namulonge, Uganda. The Namulonge Solar-Home System (SHS) is analyzed with the intention of creating a more acceptable general lighting solution. The concept of appropriateness through self-determination is discussed within the context of location-specific information integrated into a design procedure. The major thrust and contribution of this thesis, however, is the design of an interior luminaire for Golden Arrow Bus Services (GABS). This is in part based on the hypothesis that application-specific information will lead to implementation and human-needs success, and is researched, designed, fabricated and then laboratory tested. The biggest challenge to be overcome was the spatial light distribution of the LED array. Thus non-imaging optical lens design became the main focus of this project as it held the key to utilizing available light while conserving the light-systems energy. Circular Fresnel and Linear Fresnel (an adaptation of the concentric design) lenses were designed. Electrical, mechanical and thermal aspects of design are also detailed. Far-field, horizontal plane detection over the specified area is used to best gain the uniformity of distribution. The four criteria namely luminance, illuminance, intensity and étendue (collection efficiency), against which each design and focal length iv configuration is compared to, are extensively explored and eventually lead to a final design. In the first designs, the area of the spatial distribution between 50% and 80% of its relative intensity is collimated. The Hybrid Circular Fresnel and Hybrid Linear Fresnel lenses now redirects the relative intensity in two areas, from 50% to 70% (creating parallel rays) and then from 70% to 100% (away from the central axis), renders a distinct difference is spatial uniformity and a reduction in the peak and offaxis located intensity. All four criteria are met, with a minor adjustment of configuration within the bus internal luminaire spacing, with the hybrid designs. It is proposed that GABS employ polished designs of the Hybrid Circular Fresnel, in any of the configurations, which have collection efficiencies ranging between 64.8% and 78.3%. / Sponsored by the Centre for Renewable and Sustainable Energy Studies, Stellenbosch University

This research addresses life cycle environmental and economic sustainability in the baby food sector. In the UK, this sector has been growing rapidly, expanding by around 30% between 2009 and 2014, by which time it was worth an estimated £181 million per year. This growth sits within a context of high emissions from the food sector: in 2015, UK net GHG emissions were estimated to be 496 million tonnes (Mt) and the domestic food chain was responsible for 115 Mt CO2 eq. emissions. However, within this overall food chain, very little is known about the sustainability of the baby food sector, with almost no prior literature in the area. The research presented here begins with market research to identify the characteristics of products available in the ready-made food market, in which wet and dry products in jars and pouches dominate sales. Subsequently, 12 representative products are selected from those available on the market and each is assessed in detail to establish its environmental and economic impacts using life cycle assessment (LCA), life cycle costing (LCC) and value added (VA) assessment. The findings of these product-level assessments are then compared to home-made equivalents and finally scaled up according to sales volumes to provide an overall view of the baby food sector as a whole. Wet and dry variants of ready-made porridge products are assessed first as the most commonly consumed breakfast option. The dry product is shown to have 5%-70% the impacts of the wet, on average, and the importance of product formulation is clear: for dry porridge, reformulation could reduce impacts by up to 67%. For the wet porridge, switching from glass jars to plastic pouches is also shown to decrease impacts by up to 89%. Assessment of 11 wet ready-made products demonstrates that the highest impacts are found in spaghetti Bolognese and salmon risotto, and that raw materials are the major hotspot of the life cycle, contributing 12-69%, followed by manufacturing at 2-49%. When combined into a range of weekly diets limited differences are observed between diets, except in cases where dairy-free diets result in compensatory increases in meat consumption. When the aforementioned selection of ready-made products is compared to its home-made equivalent, the home-made options are shown to have lower impacts by 50% to 17 times. This is due to the avoidance of manufacturing and extra packaging stages, as well as shorter supply chains resulting in less waste overall. At the product level, the LCC of ready-made meals ranges from £0.08 to £0.26 per 125 g product, compared to £0.02-£0.20 for the home-made equivalents. Value added is, on average, approximately four times higher for ready-made meals than homemade, illustrating the potential profit of the sector. Annually, the ready-made baby food sector has an LCC of £40m and carbon footprint of 109 kt CO2 eq. This carbon footprint represents only 0.1% of the UK food and drinks sector. The results of this research show that considerable improvements can be made to the environmental and economic sustainability of baby foods, both ready- and homemade, while home-made options tend to have lower costs and environmental impacts. The outputs provide benchmarking and improvement opportunities for industry and government, as well as insight for consumers.

Maintenance is constantly challenged with increasing productivity by maximizing up-time and reliability while at the same time reducing expenditure and investment. In the last few years it has become evident through the development of maintenance concepts that maintenance is more than just a non-productive support function, it is a profit- generating function. In the past decades, hundreds of models that address maintenance strategy have been presented. The vast majority of those models rely purely on mathematical modeling to describe the maintenance function. Due to the complex nature of the maintenance function, and its complex interaction with other functions, it is almost impossible to accurately model maintenance using mathematical modeling without sacrificing accuracy and validity with unfeasible simplifications and assumptions. Analysis presented as part of this thesis shows that stochastic simulation offers a viable alternative and a powerful technique for tackling maintenance problems. Stochastic simulation is a method of modeling a system or process (on a computer) based on random events generated by the software so that system performance can be evaluated without experimenting or interfering with the actual system. The methodology developed as part of this thesis addresses most of the shortcomings found in literature, specifically by allowing the modeling of most of the complexities of an advanced maintenance system, such as one that is employed in the airline industry. This technique also allows sensitivity analysis to be carried out resulting in an understanding of how critical variables may affect the maintenance and asset management decision-making process. In many heavy industries (e.g. airline maintenance) where high utilization is essential for the success of the organization, subsystems are often of a rotable nature, i.e. they rotate among different systems throughout their life-cycle. This causes a system to be composed of a number of subsystems of different ages, and therefore different reliability characteristics. This makes it difficult for analysts to estimate its reliability behavior, and therefore may result in a less-than-optimal maintenance plan. Traditional reliability models are based on detailed statistical analysis of individual component failures. For complex machinery, especially involving many rotable parts, such analyses are difficult and time consuming. In this work, a model is proposed that combines the well-established Weibull method with discrete simulation to estimate the reliability of complex machinery with rotable subsystems or modules. Each module is characterized by an empirically derived failure distribution. The simulation model consists of a number of stages including operational up-time, maintenance down-time and a user-interface allowing decisions on maintenance and replacement strategies as well as inventory levels and logistics. This enables the optimization of a maintenance plan by comparing different maintenance and removal policies using the Cost per Unit Time (CPUT) measure as the decision variable. Five different removal strategies were tested. These include: On-failure replacements, block replacements, time-based replacements, condition-based replacements and a combination of time-based and condition-based strategies. Initial analyses performed on aircraft gas-turbine data yielded an optimal combination of modules out of a pool of multiple spares, resulting in an increased machine up-time of 16%. In addition, it was shown that condition-based replacement is a cost-effective strategy; however, it was noted that the combination of time and condition-based strategy can produce slightly better results. Furthermore, a sensitivity analysis was performed to optimize decision variables (module soft-time), and to provide an insight to the level of accuracy with which it has to be estimated. It is imperative as part of the overall reliability and life-cycle cost program to focus not only on reducing levels of unplanned (i.e. breakdown) maintenance through preventive and predictive maintenance tasks, but also optimizing inventory of spare parts management, sometimes called float hardware. It is well known that the unavailability of a spare part may result in loss of revenue, which is associated with an increase in system downtime. On the other hand increasing the number of spares will lead to an increase in capital investment and holding cost. The results obtained from the simulation model were used in a discounted NPV (Net Present Value) analysis to determine the optimal number of spare engines. The benefits of this methodology are that it is capable of providing reliability trends and forecasts in a short time frame and based on available data. In addition, it takes into account the rotable nature of many components by tracking the life and service history of individual parts and allowing the user to simulate different combinations of rotables, operating scenarios, and replacement strategies. It is also capable of optimizing stock and spares levels as well as other related key parameters like the average waiting time, unavailability cost, and the number of maintenance events that result in extensive durations due to the unavailability of spare parts. Importantly, as more data becomes available or as greater accuracy is demanded, the model or database can be updated or expanded, thereby approaching the results obtainable by pure statistical reliability analysis.

Products generate environmental impacts during their life cycle by consuming raw materials and energy, releasing emissions and producing waste. A procurement organisation can be a considerable driving force for more environmentally friendly products e.g. by requiring that products meet certain environmental criteria. The scope for environmental consideration when procuring materiel can be limited by lack of reliable information about the environmental characteristics of the product or service. Different types of tools (e.g. eco-labels, guidelines, checklists and tools for environmental assessment) can contribute some knowledge and help identify environmentally preferable products. This thesis focuses on use of tools for environmental consideration in Swedish defence acquisition but the results are also relevant for other organisations, since the procurement process analysed is rather general and the legal requirements are similar for other public organisations in Europe. A Swedish government decision in 1998 requires the Swedish Armed Forces (SAF) and Defence Materiel Administration (FMV) to take environmental consideration in all phases of the acquisition process. The importance of a life cycle perspective is stressed in several SAF and FMV environmental documents. The starting point of this thesis was that environmental consideration should be taken in the Swedish acquisition of defence materiel, considering the whole life cycle of products, with the aim of formulating proposals on environmentally friendly procurement. Some Ecodesign tools were reviewed and evaluated, two methods for simplified Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) were compared, tools and methodology were recommended, and used to study military materiel, and environmental Life Cycle Costing (LCC) was examined. In environmental work lacking a life cycle perspective, the most significant aspects risk being overlooked. Use of quantitative and/or simplified LCAs and inclusion of environmental costs in LCC are therefore recommended. LCA proved an appropriate tool for involving environmental consideration in the acquisition process, since it focuses on products and their life cycle. The MECO method proved best for simplified LCA. These suggested methods were evaluated by interviews with actors in the acquisition process. Four areas for LCA use in acquisition were identified: learning about environmental aspects of products; fulfilling customer requirements; setting environmental requirements; and choosing between alternatives. The interviewees were interested in using LCA, but there is a need for an initiative by one or several actors if the method is to be used regularly and the results must be communicated within the organisations involved in procurement. Environmental consideration should be taken early in the acquisition process and environmental matters integrated into other activities of the organisations involved. Environmental costs are not explicitly considered in the LCCs used by the interviewees today, but internal environmental costs should be included. Costs likely to be internal can also be included. / QC 20100616