Thesis advisor: Juliet B. Schor / A key emergent issue in debates over how to respond to climate change is whether wealthy countries can continue to pursue endless economic growth and still meet emissions targets called for by scientists. This study examines how and why ideas of sufficiency--which emphasize the need to limit production and consumption growth--have emerged in this context, despite great obstacles in growth-oriented societies more favourable to "business-as-usual" or ecological modernization ("green growth") approaches. These issues are examined through a comparative case study of the United Kingdom and Canada--the former one of the most successful nations to date in reducing its greenhouse-gas (GHG) emissions and the latter one of the worst performers in terms of emissions levels, emissions growth, and climate-policy implementation. The study draws on data from semi-structured interviews with actors involved in climate politics; attendance at public events and conferences debating climate-change responses; analysis of documents such as climate strategies, policy statements, speeches, op-eds, and press releases; and media articles. Evidence from these cases indicates that an ecological modernization project is very important to move beyond business-as-usual, but its limits are also evident to many in light of the need for deep and rapid emissions cuts. Combined with a critique of economic growth's faltering capacity to improve well-being, opportunities have emerged for a more challenging sufficiency perspective. Ideas of the limits to macro-economic growth have re-emerged, although they face daunting obstacles in neoliberal, consumerist capitalism. The idea of sufficiency has made greater inroads when formulated in more limited ways, such as: partial and nuanced growth critiques, demands for alternative economic indicators to replace GDP, or calls for micro-level sufficiency with respect to specific products, practices, or sectors. Sufficiency-based ideas have also benefitted where the boundaries with ecological modernization are blurred, including, paradoxically, instances where they could be linked to increased economic output in some other form. This emergence of sufficiency-based thinking has advanced further in the UK than in Canada--in large part because in Canada, a significant push for green growth has yet to occur and thus ecological modernization's limits have been harder to see or articulate. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2009. / Submitted to: Boston College. Graduate School of Arts and Sciences. / Discipline: Sociology.

Part I examines the global rise of both public and private debt and its recent manifestations in the US housing bubble and the financial panic of 2007-8. A review of the most popular theories of the debt crisis is provided, including an explication of securitized banking and economic theory. The underlying condition of increasing ecological and energetic scarcity is accorded central significance in the broad trajectory of world growth and debt, Part II explicates systems theories of social order and the social significance of markets. The theories of Niklas Luhmann, Talcott Parsons, Mario Bunge, Anthony Giddens, and Jürgen Habermas are evaluated with respect to their theories of social order and crisis. A central finding is that, although declining rates of exergy production inhibit the global economic recovery as measured by conventional economic tools, this fact is not likely to be widely recognized. A central theme of Part II is how social systems handle uncertainty, risk, and to what extent complex social systems can be regulated normatively by the public sphere. As global society becomes increasingly interconnected and dependent upon the depletion of material and energy resources, the communication channels that facilitate the self-understanding of modern society at the same time proliferate, becoming increasingly disconnected and self-referential. Luhmann’s systems theory is used to explain why collective recognition and action is at once rendered more necessary and increasingly unlikely given the complexity of global society that Earth’s terrestrial stock of nonrenewable energy resources has engendered.

The work of Kenneth Boulding is sometimes cited as being foundational to the understanding of how the economy interacts with the environment and particularly of relevance to ecological economists. The main reference made in this regard is to his seminal essay using the metaphor of planet Earth as a spaceship. In this paper that essay and related work is placed both within historical context of the environmental movement and developments in the thought on environment-economy interactions. The writing by Boulding in this area is critically reviewed and discussed in relationship to the work of his contemporaries, also regarded as important for the ecological economics community, such as Georegescu-Roegen, Herman Daly and K. William Kapp. This brings out the facts that Boulding did not pursue his environmental concerns, wrote little on the subject, had a techno-optimist tendency, disagreed with his contemporaries and preferred to develop an evolutionary economics approach. Finally, a sketch is offered of how the ideas in the Spaceship Earth essay relate to current understanding within social ecological economics. The essay itself, while offering many thought provoking insights within the context of its time, also has flaws both of accuracy and omission. The issues of power, social justice, institutional and social relationships are ones absent, but also ones which Boulding, near the end of his life, finally recognised as key to addressing the growing environmental crises. (author's abstract) / Series: SRE - Discussion Papers

The breakthrough of the concept of economic growth in economics marks a paradigm shift in thinking about the economy and its place in 'reality.' This thesis analyzes the 20th century discourse of economic growth, focusing its unlimited connotations. The thesis consists of four case studies, two introductory parts and a concluding dis­cussion. Part II first gives an etymological outline of how the concept 'growth' transformed: from signifying natural processes, to become crucial within economics. The main focus is on the historiography around Adam Smith and the classical economists as 'fathers of growth.' It is argued that though Smith introduced new ideas on eco­nomic prosperity, it is anachronistic to view him as 'father of growth' in terms of modern economic discourse. The difference between conception of economic progress in classical economics - with a 'stationary state' - and the post-war concept of economic growth - without absolute limits - is interpreted by sketching four periods in economics regarding the issue of limits. Finally the label 'dismal,' often used for classical economics, is reinter­preted. The neoclassical 'Self and classical 'Other' is seen as a useful construction for legitimizing the growth discourse. Part III deals with economic thought at the turn of the century 1900. There were different ideas on what relative priority to address to individuals and communities as the basis of economy, as well as disagreements over how to organize economic policy to solve the 'social issue.' However, these differences did not result in different views on economic expansion per se. Neither to left- nor right-wing advocates was economic expansion an objective. Rather, economic expansion was a means to construct and manage a welfare state, and thus solve the social issue. If welfare could be distributed by expanding the total, there would be no sacrifices. The way economic growth was perceived in the early development discourse is studied in Part IV. The idea of unlimited growth is framed within a Western understanding of development and progress, and it is shown that hegemony on economic growth formed. Development economics made use of new and fashionable growth models, and thereby gained influence in policy. Development was reduced to economic development, which was reduced to economic growth. With a few modifications, this version of development and progress was to be implemented globally - 'no limits' became a master narrative. Part V analyzes the debate on economic growth in the 1960s and 70s. The environmental issue gave rise to thoughts on ecological limits, and thus had a key role in designating economic growth and growth ideology as a scapegoat within a longer tradition of civilization critique. As a response, professional economists put up a uni­ted defense for growth, and a polarized debate followed. Different basic assumptions underlying the polarized positions are analyzed, and the concept modernist economic ethos is introduced to explain the polarization at a fundamental level. In the dominant discourse, critics were called pessimists, and advocates were optimists. It is argued that these value-laden labels reveal the power of language and point at a trap of discourse. Economic growth and ecological sustainable development is analyzed in Part VI, and the focus is on crisis responsive economists. Two different conceptions of the economic system are found among these. The first is the economy as free-floating, which by technical inventions is minimally restricted by ecological boundaries. The second is the economy as a dependent subsystem restricted by fundamental ecological limits. Conception of the system is conclusive for understanding economic growth and its environmental effects. The free-floating approach allows the concept of 'sustainable growth,' while the subsystem approach makes it contradictory. Part VI includes a continued discussion on the power of language, and the dichotomy of pessimism and optimism. 'Optimism' is a eulogy, and works normatively. The pessimist label has functioned, at best, as a 'discourse trap;' at worst, as a means of exclusion. In Part VII results from the case studies are summarized, and general results with implications are presented. The post-war discourse on economic growth is connected to 'ecomodernism.' Three explanations for the intro­duction and strong appeal of the discourse of unlimited economic growth are introduced: the internal cause (economic theory), the external cause (context), and the professionalization cause (connecting the internal and external). The thesis ends in a discussion on growth, language and power in the context of modernism and progress. / digitalisering@umu

The discipline of Sociology has been quiet regarding the production of food by industrial agriculture. However, there are issues that potentially undermine the ability of industrial agriculture to continue to produce food at the same rate. These issues include: global climate change, aquifer depletion, soil erosion and exhaustion, the increase in global production of meat, the ever expanding global population and peak oil. This thesis considers how these issues will affect Manitoba’s agriculture, Manitoba’s ability to adapt to a period of change and its ability to continue to feed its population. Unstructured interviews with expert informants allowed for the collection of data that are not readily available. These data are combined with pre-existing data to assemble an agricultural profile. There are two competing theories within the current dialogue: limits-to-growth and ecological modernization. Ultimately, the food procurement practices will be assessed with reference to the limits-to-growth theory and recommendations will be made.

The discipline of Sociology has been quiet regarding the production of food by industrial agriculture. However, there are issues that potentially undermine the ability of industrial agriculture to continue to produce food at the same rate. These issues include: global climate change, aquifer depletion, soil erosion and exhaustion, the increase in global production of meat, the ever expanding global population and peak oil. This thesis considers how these issues will affect Manitoba’s agriculture, Manitoba’s ability to adapt to a period of change and its ability to continue to feed its population. Unstructured interviews with expert informants allowed for the collection of data that are not readily available. These data are combined with pre-existing data to assemble an agricultural profile. There are two competing theories within the current dialogue: limits-to-growth and ecological modernization. Ultimately, the food procurement practices will be assessed with reference to the limits-to-growth theory and recommendations will be made.

I denna studie undersöktes regionala policydokument utifrån ett fokus på hållbar utveckling och förhållandet mellan hög tillväxt och förbättrad miljö. Det empiriska material utgjordes av Region Skånes tre regionala utvecklingsprogram, vilka behandlar hur myndigheten såg på regionens utveckling åren 1999–2004, 2004–2009 och 2009–2016. Studiens mål var att studera den diskursiva omdefinieringsprocessen av begreppet hållbar utveckling, genom att analysera hur detta relateras till och används i programmen. Metoden som användes var kritisk diskursanalys. Studien syftade till att synliggöra programmens diskursiva sammanhang och utveckla en förståelse för vilka synsätt och föreställningar som kan ses ligga till grund för dokumentens innehåll och utformning.Studien kom fram till att det fanns ingen tydlig förståelse kring hållbar utveckling i programmen utan det förekom yttringar av både starka och svaga hållbarhetsdiskurser. Resonemang kring ekologisk modernisering är dominerande, baserade på föreställningar om att miljöproblem kan lösas utan några stora samhällsförändringar. Denna diskurs presenterar attraktiva lösningar på eventuella motsättningar mellan hög tillväxt och förbättrad miljö, vilket möjliggör policydokument med visionära målbilder tillsammans med breda lösningar där målkonflikter och eventuella avvägningar inte belyses nämnvärt.Studiens teoretiska ramverk och metoden kritisk diskursanalys gav möjlighet att lyfta fram och belysa hur ekologisk moderniseringsdiskursen inkorporerar resonemang från tillväxtkritiska hållbarhetsdiskurser samtidigt som den marginaliserar och tar udden av dem. På så vis kan studien bidra till en vidare diskussion om olika sätt att förhålla sig till hållbar utveckling och konsekvenser av den ekologiska moderniseringens diskursiva dominans. / This study investigates regional policy documents with a focus on sustainable development and the relationship between high economic growth and an improved environment. The study’s empirical material is based on Region Skåne’s three regional development programs which put forward how the authority viewed development in the region for the years 1999–2004, 2004– 2009 and 2009–2016. The objective was to study the discursive process of redefining the concept of sustainable development by analysing how it is referred to and used in the programs. The method utilised was critical discourse analysis. The study aimed towards exposing the2programs’ discursive context and developing an understanding of the viewpoints underlying the documents’ contents.The study concluded that there was no clear understanding around sustainable development in the programs and there were statements of both strong and weak sustainable development discourse. Goal conflicts and eventually trade-offs were not particularly highlighted. Ecological modernisation was the dominating discourse as per the reasoning that environmental problems can be solved without any major societal changes. This discourse presents attractive solutions to potential conflicts which enables the policy document to provide visionary goals along with broad solutions. The study’s theoretical framework and the method critical discursive analysis allowed for the bringing forward and highlighting of how ecological modernisation incorporates reasonings from sustainable discourses critical of economic growth, at the same time marginalising and neutralising them. As a result, this study can contribute to the discussion of different ways of achieving sustainable development and the consequence of the domination of ecological modernisation discourse.

O debate sobre o decrescimento constitui uma crítica ao sistema socioeconômico baseado na lógica do crescimento ilimitado e no imperativo cultural do desenvolvimento. O decrescimento propõe a redução da escala biofísica e a reestruturação da economia global, fundamentalmente nos países do Norte cuja pegada ecológica excede os limites ecológicos. O Sul aparece com menos evidência na literatura decrescentista, porém, está inevitavelmente implicado nessa discussão. Buscando contribuir para compreender as implicações do decrescimento para o Sul, esta dissertação teve por objetivo analisar como o Sul global está representado no debate acadêmico internacional sobre o decrescimento. Para cumpri-lo, foi realizado um mapeamento e uma revisão sistemática da literatura internacional sobre o tema. Para o mapeamento, foi considerada a base de dados Scopus e foram utilizados termos de busca em inglês (degrowth e de-growth). A análise das características bibliométricas dos documentos identificados mostrou a prevalência de autores de instituições de países do Norte e baixa participação do Sul global. A revisão sistemática da literatura identificou cinco eixos temáticos na abordagem do Sul pelo decrescimento. Três deles abordam Sul de maneira explícita: (i) a perspectiva biofísica, relacionada à economia ecológica, sustenta que o decrescimento no Norte deve abrir espaço ecológico para o aumento do uso de recursos no Sul sem ultrapassar os limites ecológicos globais; (ii) os aspectos políticos dos fluxos internacionais de recursos denunciam as injustiças ambientais e socioeconômicas associadas ao comércio de commodities da perspectiva da ecologia política; e (iii) o eixo das alternativas ao desenvolvimento vê convergências entre o decrescimento e cosmovisões oriundas de contextos culturais do Sul como o bem viver andino. Por outro lado, outros dois eixos identificados abordam o Sul de maneira implícita ou indireta: (iv) no eixo que trata de aspectos demográficos, o decrescimento busca se afastar de concepções malthusianas autoritárias e se aproximar de abordagens de controle populacional voluntário, sem nomear explicitamente o Sul, mas responsabilizando indiretamente as populações mais numerosas; (v) no último eixo, se argumenta que a diminuição do consumo permitiria o decrescimento do tempo de trabalho dos trabalhadores do Norte global, sem relacionar esse tipo de decrescimento aos países do Sul, onde o efeito poderia ser o oposto se houvesse aumento do consumo. Observou-se que o decrescimento do consumo da escala biofísica da economia não é recomendado ao Sul. O decrescimento da jornada de trabalho tampouco, ao passo que o decrescimento populacional pode ser associado a esse grupo de países. Tanto no Sul quanto no Norte são desejáveis alternativas autóctones ao desenvolvimento. Porém, nos cinco eixos identificados na abordagem do Sul, pouco se explora a relocalização, um processo estratégico para o decrescimento em seu sentido amplo e também para o objetivo de estabelecer relações justas entre Sul e Norte. Recomenda-se que estudos futuros considerem a relocalização ao abordar a divisão Norte-Sul no contexto do decrescimento. Sugere-se ainda que correntes do pensamento latinoamericano, que apesar de orientadas pela ideia de desenvolvimento se debruçaram sobre as relações político-econômicas entre países, podem também contribuir para discutir o decrescimento de uma perspectiva do Sul global. / Degrowth is a critique of a society based on the logic of limitless gowth and on the cultural imperative of development. Degrowth proposes reduction of the biophysical scale and restructuring of the global economy, notably, in the global North whose ecological footprint have overshot ecological limits. The global South appears with less evidence in the degrowth literature, however, it is unavoidably implicated in this discussion. Seeking to understand the implications of degrowth for the South, this dissertation aimed to analyze how the global South is represented in the international academic debate on degrowth. To accomplish this goal, the international literature on the subject was mapped and systematically reviewed. The database Scopus was selected for the mapping procedure and search terms were defined in English (degrowth and de-growth). The mapping showed the prevalence of authors from institutions of the North and low participation of the South. The review identified five thematic axes in the approach to the South by degrowth. Three of them approach the South in an explicit way: (i) the biophysical perspective, related to ecological economics, holds that degrowth in the North may open \"ecological space\" for growth in resources use in the South without exceeding global ecological limits; (ii) the political aspects of international resource flows denounce environmental and socio-economic injustices associated with commodity trade from the perspective of political ecology; and (iii) the axis on alternatives to development sees convergences between degrowth and cosmovisions coming from cultural contexts of the South as the Andean buen vivir. On the other hand, two other identified axes approach the South in an implicit or indirect way: (iv) in the axis that deals with demographic aspects, degrowth attempts to move away from authoritarian Malthusian conceptions and get closer to voluntary population control approaches without naming the South explicitly, but indirectly charging larger populations independently of their per capita impact; and (V) in the last axis, it is argued that lower consumption would allow work-time degrowth in the North. However, this type of degrowth is not mentioned to be desired for the South, where the effect could be the opposite if there were an increase in consumption. It was observed that degrowth in consumption and of the biophysical scale of the economy is not recommended for the South. Work-time degrowth is not recommended either, while populational contraction is not associated to any of the groups of countries. Both in the South and in the North autochthonous development alternatives are desirable. It is recommended that future studies consider relocalization when addressing the North-South divide in the context of degrowth. It is also suggested that streams of Latin American thought, which although oriented by the idea of development focused on the political-economic relations between countries, may also contribute to discuss degrowth from a global South perspective.

O debate sobre o decrescimento constitui uma crítica ao sistema socioeconômico baseado na lógica do crescimento ilimitado e no imperativo cultural do desenvolvimento. O decrescimento propõe a redução da escala biofísica e a reestruturação da economia global, fundamentalmente nos países do Norte cuja pegada ecológica excede os limites ecológicos. O Sul aparece com menos evidência na literatura decrescentista, porém, está inevitavelmente implicado nessa discussão. Buscando contribuir para compreender as implicações do decrescimento para o Sul, esta dissertação teve por objetivo analisar como o Sul global está representado no debate acadêmico internacional sobre o decrescimento. Para cumpri-lo, foi realizado um mapeamento e uma revisão sistemática da literatura internacional sobre o tema. Para o mapeamento, foi considerada a base de dados Scopus e foram utilizados termos de busca em inglês (degrowth e de-growth). A análise das características bibliométricas dos documentos identificados mostrou a prevalência de autores de instituições de países do Norte e baixa participação do Sul global. A revisão sistemática da literatura identificou cinco eixos temáticos na abordagem do Sul pelo decrescimento. Três deles abordam Sul de maneira explícita: (i) a perspectiva biofísica, relacionada à economia ecológica, sustenta que o decrescimento no Norte deve abrir espaço ecológico para o aumento do uso de recursos no Sul sem ultrapassar os limites ecológicos globais; (ii) os aspectos políticos dos fluxos internacionais de recursos denunciam as injustiças ambientais e socioeconômicas associadas ao comércio de commodities da perspectiva da ecologia política; e (iii) o eixo das alternativas ao desenvolvimento vê convergências entre o decrescimento e cosmovisões oriundas de contextos culturais do Sul como o bem viver andino. Por outro lado, outros dois eixos identificados abordam o Sul de maneira implícita ou indireta: (iv) no eixo que trata de aspectos demográficos, o decrescimento busca se afastar de concepções malthusianas autoritárias e se aproximar de abordagens de controle populacional voluntário, sem nomear explicitamente o Sul, mas responsabilizando indiretamente as populações mais numerosas; (v) no último eixo, se argumenta que a diminuição do consumo permitiria o decrescimento do tempo de trabalho dos trabalhadores do Norte global, sem relacionar esse tipo de decrescimento aos países do Sul, onde o efeito poderia ser o oposto se houvesse aumento do consumo. Observou-se que o decrescimento do consumo da escala biofísica da economia não é recomendado ao Sul. O decrescimento da jornada de trabalho tampouco, ao passo que o decrescimento populacional pode ser associado a esse grupo de países. Tanto no Sul quanto no Norte são desejáveis alternativas autóctones ao desenvolvimento. Porém, nos cinco eixos identificados na abordagem do Sul, pouco se explora a relocalização, um processo estratégico para o decrescimento em seu sentido amplo e também para o objetivo de estabelecer relações justas entre Sul e Norte. Recomenda-se que estudos futuros considerem a relocalização ao abordar a divisão Norte-Sul no contexto do decrescimento. Sugere-se ainda que correntes do pensamento latinoamericano, que apesar de orientadas pela ideia de desenvolvimento se debruçaram sobre as relações político-econômicas entre países, podem também contribuir para discutir o decrescimento de uma perspectiva do Sul global. / Degrowth is a critique of a society based on the logic of limitless gowth and on the cultural imperative of development. Degrowth proposes reduction of the biophysical scale and restructuring of the global economy, notably, in the global North whose ecological footprint have overshot ecological limits. The global South appears with less evidence in the degrowth literature, however, it is unavoidably implicated in this discussion. Seeking to understand the implications of degrowth for the South, this dissertation aimed to analyze how the global South is represented in the international academic debate on degrowth. To accomplish this goal, the international literature on the subject was mapped and systematically reviewed. The database Scopus was selected for the mapping procedure and search terms were defined in English (degrowth and de-growth). The mapping showed the prevalence of authors from institutions of the North and low participation of the South. The review identified five thematic axes in the approach to the South by degrowth. Three of them approach the South in an explicit way: (i) the biophysical perspective, related to ecological economics, holds that degrowth in the North may open \"ecological space\" for growth in resources use in the South without exceeding global ecological limits; (ii) the political aspects of international resource flows denounce environmental and socio-economic injustices associated with commodity trade from the perspective of political ecology; and (iii) the axis on alternatives to development sees convergences between degrowth and cosmovisions coming from cultural contexts of the South as the Andean buen vivir. On the other hand, two other identified axes approach the South in an implicit or indirect way: (iv) in the axis that deals with demographic aspects, degrowth attempts to move away from authoritarian Malthusian conceptions and get closer to voluntary population control approaches without naming the South explicitly, but indirectly charging larger populations independently of their per capita impact; and (V) in the last axis, it is argued that lower consumption would allow work-time degrowth in the North. However, this type of degrowth is not mentioned to be desired for the South, where the effect could be the opposite if there were an increase in consumption. It was observed that degrowth in consumption and of the biophysical scale of the economy is not recommended for the South. Work-time degrowth is not recommended either, while populational contraction is not associated to any of the groups of countries. Both in the South and in the North autochthonous development alternatives are desirable. It is recommended that future studies consider relocalization when addressing the North-South divide in the context of degrowth. It is also suggested that streams of Latin American thought, which although oriented by the idea of development focused on the political-economic relations between countries, may also contribute to discuss degrowth from a global South perspective.

The thesis analyzes the theory of Steady-State Economy based on a research of literature as well as principles and starting points for its application in practice. The central question revolves around the viability of the theory. First, however, the thesis focuses on the context, i.e. the background and needs for the emergence of this theory. Thus, the research begins at a time of industrial revolution and the rise of modern economies. In the course of the research, the analysis also points out the phenomenon of cooperatives, which arise in the early days of industrialization, as examined at the start of the work. Later, after a comprehensive introduction of the steady-state economy theory, the thesis returns to cooperatives, as during the research certain parallels in both of the phenomena emerge. Consequently, the conclusion recapitulates and examines whether steady state economy has been proven to be viable, what could support its functioning and whether one of the answers might be cooperatives - considered they have been shown to realize certain assumptions of this economic theory in practice. After a review of criticism of both of the phenomena, a final evaluation and decision may be reached, i.e. the research questions may be answered.