O aumento nos limites de pesos estabelecidos pela legislação brasileira e o surgimento de novas combinações de veículos de carga nos últimos anos tornam necessária a verificação da segurança estrutural das pontes quando submetidas ao tráfego real. Este trabalho verifica o desempenho das obras de arte sob jurisdição do DER-SP através do índice de confiabilidade 'beta' e obtém limites para o peso de caminhões de modo a não comprometer sua integridade estrutural. São consideradas as superestruturas das pontes em concreto armado ou protendido, classes 36 e 45. Verifica-se o estado limite último nas seções transversais mais solicitadas por momento fletor positivo e negativo. No caso de pontes em concreto protendido, acrescenta-se o estado limite de formação de fissuras. Para a representação do tráfego real, é desenvolvido um modelo de carregamento móvel com base em pesagens de caminhões efetuadas em rodovias do estado de São Paulo. Admite-se a presença simultânea de veículos sobre a ponte e diferentes relações entre seus pesos. Os parâmetros estatísticos da resistência são determinados através da técnica de Monte Carlo. Apresenta-se os limites de peso em forma de equações, denominadas ECPLs (equações comprimento-peso limite), aplicáveis a quaisquer grupo de eixos consecutivos. Os resultados indicam restrições à circulação de algumas composições, especialmente ao rodotrem de 740 kN e 19,80 metros de comprimento. Considerando-se apenas o estado limite de serviço, as obras de arte classe 45 apresentam menores limites de peso devido à ponderação de ações durante o projeto / The increase in gross weight limits allowed by Brazilian legislation and the appearance of new truck configurations in last years require the assessment of bridges structural safety when submitted to real traffic. This thesis verifies the performance of the bridges under DER-SP jurisdiction using the reliability index 'beta' and obtains truck weight limits in order to guarantee its structural integrity. The superstructure of reinforced and prestressed concrete bridges, classes 36 and 45, is considered. The ultimate limit state is verified in cross sections submitted to critical positive and negative bending moments. In case of prestressed bridges, the tension limit state in concrete is added. To represent the real traffic, a live load model is developed based on weighting data collected from stations located at highways of the state of Sao Paulo. Multiple presence of vehicles over the bridge and different relations between weights are admitted. The statistical parameters of resistance are determined using the Monte Carlo technique. The gross weight limits are presented in the form of equations, known as bridge formulas, to be applied on any group of two or more consecutive axles. The results indicate restrictions to the traffic of some vehicles, especially the 740 kN and 19,80 meters length roadtrain. Considering only the serviceability limit state, bridges class 45 exhibit lower weight limits due to the load factors recommended by the code during design

Master of Science / Department of Electrical Engineering / Shelli K. Starrett / Modern power systems are integrated, complex, dynamic systems. Due to the complexity, power system operation and control need to be analyzed using numerical simulation. The load model is one of the least known models among the many components in the power system operation. The two different load models are the static and dynamic models. The ZIP load model has been extensively studied. This has widely applied to composite load models that could maintain constant impedance, constant current, and/or constant power. In this work, various Neural Networks algorithms and fuzzy logic have been used to obtain these ZIP load model coefficients for determining the percentage of constant impedance, current, or power for the various load buses. The inputs are a combination of voltage, voltage change, and power change, or voltage and power, and the outputs consist of the ZIP load model coefficients for determining the type and the percentage of load at the bus. The trained model is used to predict the type and percentage of constant load at other buses using simulated transient data from the 16-generator system. A small study was also done using a dynamic induction machine model in addition to the ZIP load model. As expected, the results show that the dynamic model is more difficult to determine than the static model.

Esta dissertação apresenta um modelo aproximado de rede desenvolvido para análise de sistemas de distribuição em regime permanente. O modelo é detalhado do ponto de vista matemático e teórico considerando a representação dos elementos em derivação da rede (cargas e geradores) e dos limites operacionais empregando aproximações lineares. A modelagem linear permite determinar de forma simples os valores das tensões e correntes do sistema, podendo ser empregada em problemas de otimização relacionados ao planejamento e expansão de sistemas de distribuição. A representação da carga considera a influência da variação da tensão, fator determinante nas redes de distribuição. Também é considerada a inclusão de geração distribuída (GD) sendo implementada para diferentes modos de operação, permitindo ainda a minimização das perdas para a barra onde a GD está alocada. Para validar a abordagem proposta, os resultados do modelo apresentado foram comparados em termos de tensões, correntes e perdas com resultados obtidos com o modelo convencional de fluxo de carga, solucionado pelo algoritmo de varredura. Os testes foram realizados em dois sistemas de distribuição conhecidos, um de 70 barras e um de 135 barras. Para o sistema de 70 barras foi avaliado o uso de diferentes modos de operação da GD. Finalmente, para o sistema de 135 barras foram comparados os resultados do modelo proposto com o fluxo de carga convencional caracterizando a GD como uma barra de tensão controlada (PV) para diversos valores de injeção ativa na barra selecionada. As conclusões confirmam a validade e as vantagens que o modelo desenvolvido neste trabalho proporciona. / This work presents an approximate model developed to the analysis of electrical distribution systems at steady state. Both mathematical and theoretical details are given considering the representation of the shunt elements (loads and generators) and the operating limits of the network, using linear approximations. The linear modeling adopted resulted in a simple way to determine the values of the voltages and currents of the system; further the model can be applied to optimization problems related to optimal operation and expansion planning of distribution systems. The load representation considers the influence of voltage variations, which play an important role in the distribution networks. This work also considers the inclusion of distributed generation (DG), which is assessed under several modes of operation, including one mode which allows to minimize the losses at the node where the DG is located. To validate the proposed approach, the results for two example networks, given in terms of voltages, currents and losses, were compared with corresponding results obtained with conventional load flow model, solved by the backward-forward sweep method. The examples networks used to test and validate the model are known distribution systems, one having 70 and the other 135 nodes. Regarding the system with 70 nodes, the inclusion of DG was studied for several operational modes. Finally, the system of 135 nodes were used to compare the results of the proposed model with the results of the conventional load flow; in this case, the GD was characterized as a controlled-voltage bar (PV) for various levels of active power injection into the bar where the GD is located. The conclusions show the validity and advantages of the proposed model.

Esta dissertação apresenta um modelo aproximado de rede desenvolvido para análise de sistemas de distribuição em regime permanente. O modelo é detalhado do ponto de vista matemático e teórico considerando a representação dos elementos em derivação da rede (cargas e geradores) e dos limites operacionais empregando aproximações lineares. A modelagem linear permite determinar de forma simples os valores das tensões e correntes do sistema, podendo ser empregada em problemas de otimização relacionados ao planejamento e expansão de sistemas de distribuição. A representação da carga considera a influência da variação da tensão, fator determinante nas redes de distribuição. Também é considerada a inclusão de geração distribuída (GD) sendo implementada para diferentes modos de operação, permitindo ainda a minimização das perdas para a barra onde a GD está alocada. Para validar a abordagem proposta, os resultados do modelo apresentado foram comparados em termos de tensões, correntes e perdas com resultados obtidos com o modelo convencional de fluxo de carga, solucionado pelo algoritmo de varredura. Os testes foram realizados em dois sistemas de distribuição conhecidos, um de 70 barras e um de 135 barras. Para o sistema de 70 barras foi avaliado o uso de diferentes modos de operação da GD. Finalmente, para o sistema de 135 barras foram comparados os resultados do modelo proposto com o fluxo de carga convencional caracterizando a GD como uma barra de tensão controlada (PV) para diversos valores de injeção ativa na barra selecionada. As conclusões confirmam a validade e as vantagens que o modelo desenvolvido neste trabalho proporciona. / This work presents an approximate model developed to the analysis of electrical distribution systems at steady state. Both mathematical and theoretical details are given considering the representation of the shunt elements (loads and generators) and the operating limits of the network, using linear approximations. The linear modeling adopted resulted in a simple way to determine the values of the voltages and currents of the system; further the model can be applied to optimization problems related to optimal operation and expansion planning of distribution systems. The load representation considers the influence of voltage variations, which play an important role in the distribution networks. This work also considers the inclusion of distributed generation (DG), which is assessed under several modes of operation, including one mode which allows to minimize the losses at the node where the DG is located. To validate the proposed approach, the results for two example networks, given in terms of voltages, currents and losses, were compared with corresponding results obtained with conventional load flow model, solved by the backward-forward sweep method. The examples networks used to test and validate the model are known distribution systems, one having 70 and the other 135 nodes. Regarding the system with 70 nodes, the inclusion of DG was studied for several operational modes. Finally, the system of 135 nodes were used to compare the results of the proposed model with the results of the conventional load flow; in this case, the GD was characterized as a controlled-voltage bar (PV) for various levels of active power injection into the bar where the GD is located. The conclusions show the validity and advantages of the proposed model.

Esta dissertação apresenta um modelo aproximado de rede desenvolvido para análise de sistemas de distribuição em regime permanente. O modelo é detalhado do ponto de vista matemático e teórico considerando a representação dos elementos em derivação da rede (cargas e geradores) e dos limites operacionais empregando aproximações lineares. A modelagem linear permite determinar de forma simples os valores das tensões e correntes do sistema, podendo ser empregada em problemas de otimização relacionados ao planejamento e expansão de sistemas de distribuição. A representação da carga considera a influência da variação da tensão, fator determinante nas redes de distribuição. Também é considerada a inclusão de geração distribuída (GD) sendo implementada para diferentes modos de operação, permitindo ainda a minimização das perdas para a barra onde a GD está alocada. Para validar a abordagem proposta, os resultados do modelo apresentado foram comparados em termos de tensões, correntes e perdas com resultados obtidos com o modelo convencional de fluxo de carga, solucionado pelo algoritmo de varredura. Os testes foram realizados em dois sistemas de distribuição conhecidos, um de 70 barras e um de 135 barras. Para o sistema de 70 barras foi avaliado o uso de diferentes modos de operação da GD. Finalmente, para o sistema de 135 barras foram comparados os resultados do modelo proposto com o fluxo de carga convencional caracterizando a GD como uma barra de tensão controlada (PV) para diversos valores de injeção ativa na barra selecionada. As conclusões confirmam a validade e as vantagens que o modelo desenvolvido neste trabalho proporciona. / This work presents an approximate model developed to the analysis of electrical distribution systems at steady state. Both mathematical and theoretical details are given considering the representation of the shunt elements (loads and generators) and the operating limits of the network, using linear approximations. The linear modeling adopted resulted in a simple way to determine the values of the voltages and currents of the system; further the model can be applied to optimization problems related to optimal operation and expansion planning of distribution systems. The load representation considers the influence of voltage variations, which play an important role in the distribution networks. This work also considers the inclusion of distributed generation (DG), which is assessed under several modes of operation, including one mode which allows to minimize the losses at the node where the DG is located. To validate the proposed approach, the results for two example networks, given in terms of voltages, currents and losses, were compared with corresponding results obtained with conventional load flow model, solved by the backward-forward sweep method. The examples networks used to test and validate the model are known distribution systems, one having 70 and the other 135 nodes. Regarding the system with 70 nodes, the inclusion of DG was studied for several operational modes. Finally, the system of 135 nodes were used to compare the results of the proposed model with the results of the conventional load flow; in this case, the GD was characterized as a controlled-voltage bar (PV) for various levels of active power injection into the bar where the GD is located. The conclusions show the validity and advantages of the proposed model.

This thesis deals with power quality and load modeling. The issues of power quality, principles of load model creation and various types of loads and their principles are described and explained in this thesis. Various software and its main adventages in power systems modeling are described and various load models and simulations in PSCAD program are created and described at last.

Since 1 January 2010 it is a requirement to use the European standards, Eurocodes, in Sweden when constructing bridges. One chapter that has caused an extra amount of problems for the engineers is the one about fatigue analysis, which resulted in us doing this thesis. To do this we had to read all of the Eurocodes that direct, or indirect deals with fatigue and calculating of such. We have read the background documents for the Eurocodes and master’s thesis in the subject. We also studied the calculations of bridges constructed by different construction firms. We have chosen to limit the thesis to discuss only road bridges made of concrete due to the lack of method for verification of concrete in the national appendix. There is a need for clarification of what method to use. To make sure that this thesis will be of use to the constructors, we have presented easy-to-use instructions for how to calculate fatigue on reinforced concrete bridges. We have also calculated an example of a bridge in two spans where we present the calculations in Excel more thoroughly. Fatigue of concrete is in many cases not the critical factor and it can most often be verified by simple methods. The concrete reinforcement is more often the subject to fatigue, but verification can relatively easy be done with the method described in the national appendix if a good Excel- or MathCAD sheet is used. / Sedan den 1 januari 2010 är det krav i Sverige att för bro- och anläggningskonstruktioner använda de nya europeiska standarderna, eurokoder, för dimensionering. Ett kapitel som vållat stora problem för brokonstruktörer är kapitlet om utmattningslaster och dimensionering för dessa vilket ledde till att vi gjorde detta examensarbete. Vi har läst igenom de eurokoder som direkt och indirekt behandlar utmattning och utmattningsberäkningar, granskat bakgrundsdokument till eurokoderna samt läst examensarbeten som handlar om utmattning. Dessutom har vi också granskat beräkningar från ett flertal broar som olika konsultföretag konstruerat. Vi har valt att avgränsa arbetet till att enbart handla om utmattning av vägbroar i armerad betong. Detta har vi gjort för att metoder för verifiering av betongen i vägbroar inte är definierade i de nationella tilläggen till eurokoderna. Därför behövs ett förtydligande av vilka metoder som är lämpliga att använda. För att konstruktörer ska ha praktisk nytta av detta examensarbete, har vi redovisat en beräkningsgång med kommentarer och dessutom utfört egna beräkningar för en förenklad variant av en plattbro i två spann där vi redovisar beräkningarna i Excel mer ingående. Vad vi har kommit fram till är att armeringen ofta är mer utsatt för utmattning än betongen men verifieringsmetoden beskriven för armeringen i det nationella tillägget är en metod som är relativt lätt att använda med ett bra Excel eller MathCAD-ark.

At the turn of 2010/2011, Sweden went from designing structures according to nationaldesign codes to the new European standards Eurocode. For bridge engineers, this implieda change from a combination of BRO 2004 and BSK 07 to the Eurocode as the maindocuments, complemented by national documents such as TRVK Bro 11. The normtransition did not only change the calculation methods, but also turned a phenomenonthat never was of great importance for road bridges before into something that could limitthe carrying capacity of the structure. This phenomenon is called fatigue, i.e. repeatedload cycles, where each load is much lower than the ultimate limit state capacity, thatfinally results in collapse. This master thesis investigates why fatigue is significant in the design today. This is donethrough a comparison of how the new and old regulations assesses fatigue. A bridge builtin 2011, designed by ELU Konsult AB according to the old regulations, was modelledin the finite element program LUSAS. Several lorry crossings from different fatigue loadmodels were then simulated. The output from LUSAS was then used to calculate theutilization ratios for three critical points along the bridge. The result indicates that both regulations give rise to similar stress ranges, i.e. thedifference between the maximum and minimum stress obtained during a crossing. Thedifferences between the regulations are instead within the fatigue calculations, where themajor difference is the number of lorries crossing the bridge during its lifetime. Theutilization ratio according to the old regulations for the worst exposed point is 27.0 %,corresponding to 9.13 daily crossings by heavy lorries, which is the maximum numberof daily crossings provided by BRO 2004. The lowest utilization ratio according tothe Eurocode is 70.0 %, calculated for 137 daily crossings which is the lowest amountof crossings allowed. An interpretation of the Eurocode, which allows usage of fatigue loadmodel 5 even for smaller bridges, results in a utilization ratio of 56.0% which correspondsto 90.0 daily crossings, i.e. lower than the other fatigue load models provided by theEurocode but clearly above the old regulations. The conclusion is that an alternative way of deciding the number of crossings shouldbe provided by the Eurocode. Today, the classification consists of four steps, which arevery rough. Instead, a proposal is given in this thesis which advocates usage of a linearfunction for deciding the number of design crossings based on the number of daily crossingsby lorries. The proposed alternative design method is between the two regulations withrespect to daily crossings and utilization ratio. / Vid årsskiftet 2010/2011 övergick Sverige från att dimensionera byggnadsverk enligt nationellastandarder till den nya europastandarden Eurokod. För brokonstruktörer innebar dettaen övergång från en kombination av BRO 2004 och BSK 07, till att Eurokod blev dethuvudsakligt styrande dokumentet, med bland annat TRVK Bro 11 som ett dokumentmed tillhörande nationella val. Övergången medförde inte bara att verksamma konstruktörertvingades lära sig förändrade beräkningsmetoder, utan också att ett fenomen som tidigaresällan var dimensionerande för vägbroar nu kunde vara det som ställde högst krav påbärförmågan. Detta fenomen kallas utmattning, dvs. upprepade av- och pålastningar, varoch en betydligt lägre än brons maximala bärförmåga, som i slutändan resulterar i brott. I detta examensarbete utreds det varför utmattning numera är en betydande del avdimensioneringen. Detta sker genom en jämförelse av hur de gamla och nya normernautvärderar utmattning. Som modell har en befintlig bro invigd 2011, dimensioneradav ELU Konsult AB enligt de gamla normerna, använts. Denna bro har modellerats ifinita element programmet LUSAS, varpå en mängd olika lastbilsöverfarter simulerats ochutmattningsutnyttjandet för tre utvalda kritska punkter beräknats. Resultatet indikerar att båda normerna har liknande storlekar på spänningsvidderna,dvs. skillnaden på största och minsta spänningen som uppstår vid en överfart. Däremotråder det skillnader vid utmattningsberäkningarna, där den stora skillnaden är antalettunga fordon som passerar bron under dess livslängd. Enligt de gamla normerna ärutnyttjandegraden för den värst utsatta studerade punkten 27.0 %, vilket är beräknatpå det högsta antalet dagliga passager från tunga fordon som BRO 2004 tillåter, d.v.s.9.13 dagliga passager. Enligt Eurokod uppgår den lägsta utnyttjandegraden till 70.0 %,vilket motsvarar 137 dagliga överfarter vilket är det lägsta Eurokod tillåter. Vid ettalternativt sätt att tolka Eurokod, som tillåter användandet av utmattningslastmodell5 även för mindre broar, fås en utnyttjandegrad på 56.0% vilket motsvarar 90.0 dagligaöverfarter. Detta är något lägre än de andra utmattningslastmodellerna enligt Eurokodmen fortfarande högre än det gamla regelverket. Slutsatsen av uppsatsen är att ett alternativt sätt att bestämma antalet överfarter bordeerbjudas i Eurokod, då indelningen idag består av fyra stora trappsteg vilket ger en väldigtsnäv indelning. I detta examensarbete presenteras ett förslag som innebär att antaletdimensionerande överfarter istället bör bestämmas som en rätlinjig funktion av antaletdagliga överfarter från tung trafik. Det föreslagna sättet ligger mellan de båda normernamed hänsyn till passager och utnyttjandegrad.

Thesis deals with horizontally curved bridge on the ramp in Brno. Designed structure is continous beam formed by bicameral shape, on which are considered the effects of traffic according to ČSN EN 1991-2. Based on the results of stress the structure is designed.

This diploma thesis deals with a proposal and a comparison of several options of transportation planning in the shopping area in the urban area of the town of Modřice, which is enlarging due to the building-up of new commercial centres. The first part of the thesis consists of a treatise on the field of traffic engineering, road-traffic telematics and ITS. The core of the work is formed by a detailed analysis of the current state and calibration of the transport simulation system AIMSUN. The following part shows three different ways of transportation in the given area and all of them include a model of the particular area made in the program AIMSUN and an elaborate analysis of the proposed solution. In the last part of the work all the proposed solutions are compared according to the results gained from the AIMSUN model.