Current environmental and economic trends have forced grid operators to maximize the utilization of the existing assets, which is causing systems to be operated closer to their stability limits than ever before. This requires, among other things, better knowledge and modelling of the existing power system equipment to increase the accuracy of the assessment of current stability margins.This research investigates the possibility of improving the quality of load modeling. The thesis presents a review of the traditional methods for estimation of load model parameters and proposes to use Improved Particle Swarm Optimization. Different algorithms are tested and compared in terms of accuracy, reliability and CPU requirements using computer simulations and real-data captured in a power system.Estimation of frequency and power components has also been studied in this thesis. A review of the existing methods has been provided and the use of an Unscented Kalman Filter proposed. This nonlinear recursive algorithm has been thoroughly tested and compared against selected traditional techniques in a number of experiments involving computer-generated signals as well as measurements obtained in laboratory conditions.

The last full review of load models used for power system studies occurred in the 1980s. Since then, new types of loads have been introduced and system load mix has changed considerably. The examples of newly introduced loads include drive-controlled motors, low energy consumption light sources and other modern power electronic loads. Their numbers have been steadily increasing in recent years, a trend which is expected to escalate. Accordingly, the majority of load models used in traditional power system studies are becoming outdated, as they are unable to accurately represent power demand characteristics of existing and future loads. Therefore, in order to accurately predict both active and non-active power demand characteristics of aggregated modern power system loads in different load sectors (e.g. residential, commercial or industrial), existing load models should be updated and new models developed. This thesis aims to fill this gap by developing individual, generic and aggregated steady state models of the most common loads in use today, as well as of those expected to show significant growth in the future. The component-based approach is adopted for load modelling, where individual load models are obtained in detailed simulations of physical devices. Whenever possible, the developed individual load models are validated by measurements. These detailed individual load models are then simplified and expressed as equivalent circuit and analytical models, which allowed the establishment of generic load models that can be easily aggregated. It should be noted that since all non-active power characteristics are correctly represented, the developed aggregated load models allow for a full harmonic analysis, which is not the case with the standard steady state load models. Therefore, the proposed load models form an extensive library of comprehensive load models that are suitable for use in multiple areas of power system research. Based on the results of research related to typical domestic/residential sector load mix, the newly developed load models are aggregated and then applied to a typical UK/Scotland distribution network. Considerable differences are seen between network characteristics of newly proposed and previously developed models. The voltage distortion of a typical distribution system bus is investigated, and it is shown that distortion of the system voltage is likely to increase significantly in the future. The results of the presented research also suggest that neglecting the harmonic characteristics from the set of general load attributes may introduce errors in standard load flow studies.

The load response to voltage and frequency changeshas a considerable impact on the behaviour of the powersystem. Thus, the selection of a load model structure andits corresponding parameters is an important task in orderto study and predict the system behaviour. Currently,the Nordic Transmission System Operators (TSO) use theZIP load model, as it provides an easy and flexible way ofrepresenting the load. The main goal of the thesis has beento test two approaches for deriving ZIP model parameters,namely the component-based and measurement-basedapproaches. The former approach uses predefined parametervalues, and information on the loads electricityconsumption, whereas the latter uses measurement dataand curve-fitting techniques. In order to evaluate themethodology, a case study has been performed, wherethe two aggregation approaches were applied on anevaluation point. It was found that the aggregation bymeans of the component-based approach may result in ZIPparameters lacking physical significance. ZIP parameterswithout physical significance pose a challenge for systemplanners, who may have difficulties in accepting thesevalues as they are less intuitive than physically significantones. Furthermore, the results of the measurement-basedapproach indicate that the ZIP model has some limitationwhen it comes to the sudden load changes that it canaccommodate. This has been the case with the measuredreactive power in the case study. Based on the resultsof applying the methodology, it can be concluded thatthe component-based and measurement-based approachesprovide useful information when understanding powersystem loads. / Lastens svar på spänning och frekvensförändringarhar en betydande inverkan på elkraftsystemet. Sålundaär valet av en lastmodell och dess parametrar viktigt föratt kunna studera och förutsäga systemets beteende. Förnärvarande använder de nordiska stamnätsägarna (TSO)ZIP lastmodellen, eftersom det ger ett enkelt och flexibeltsätt att representera lasten. Huvudsyftet med den häravhandlingen har varit att testa två metoder för att ta framZIP modellparametrar, nämligen en komponent-baseradoch en mätnings-baserade metod. Den tidigare metodenanvänder fördefinierade parametervärden, och informationom lasternas elförbrukning, medan den senare användermätdata och kurvanpassningstekniker. För att utvärderametoden har en fallstudie genomförts där de två metodernaapplicerades på en utvärderingspunkt. Det konstateradesatt den komponent-baserade metoden kan resultera i ZIPparametrar som saknar fysisk betydelse. ZIP parametrarutan fysisk betydelse utgör en utmaning för systemplanerare,som kan ha svårt att acceptera dessa värden eftersom deär mindre intuitiva än fysiskt betydande sådana. Dessutomindikeras det, att ZIP modellen har begränsningar när detgäller att representera stora steg i den uppmätta effektenssvar, då den mätnings-baserade metoden används. Dettaär fallet för den reaktiva effekten i fallstudien. Baserat påresultaten av tillämpningen av metoden, kan man dra slutsatsenatt den komponent-baserade och mätnings-baserademetoden ge användbar information när man vill förståkraftsystems laster.

Interest has been growing in the interaction of various power demand transformations, such as demand side management (DSM) and voltage control, with the power demand. Initial studies have highlighted the need for a better understanding of the power demand of low voltage (LV) residential networks. Furthermore, it is expected that future alteration of the residential appliance mixture, because of the advances in technology, will have an impact on both the demand curve as well as the electrical characteristics. This thesis presents a study of the impact of current and future household load on the power demand curve and the network operation. In order to achieve this, a bottom-up load modelling tool was developed to create LV detailed demand profiles that include not only the active and reactive power demand, but their electrical characteristics as well. The methodology uses a Markov chain Monte Carlo approach to generate residential LV demand profiles taking into account the user activity and behaviour to represent UK population. An appliance database has also been created which corresponds to the UK residential appliance mixture in order to calculate more accurately the power demand. The main advantages of the approach presented here are the flexibility in altering the type and number of the appliances that populate a household and how easily it can be adapted to a different population, location and climate. The tool is used to investigate the impact of scenarios that simulate future load replacement and the network behaviour under certain methods of demand control, implementation of DSM and control of voltage on the secondary of the LV transformer. The algorithm that was developed to apply the DSM actions on the power demand focused on the management of individual loads. The drivers used in this approach were the financial and environmental benefit of customers and the increase in the quality of the network operation. The control of the voltage as a method for power reduction takes into account the voltage dependence of the demand. The primary target is to quantify the benefits of this strategy either in combination with DSM for higher power reduction during the peak hours or on the current network as a quicker, easier and less expensive alternative to DSM. The study shows that there is a significant power reduction in both cases which is dependent on the time of day and not constant as expected from the literature. The results show that there are significant differences between current and future load demand characteristics that would be very difficult to acquire without the modelling technique presented. The alternative solution would require extensive local load and network modifications and a long period of expensive tests and measurements in the field.

This dissertation addresses the problem of optimally scheduling the hoists of a twin rock winder system in a demand side management context. The objective is to schedule the hoists at minimum energy cost taking into account various physical and operational constraints and production requirements as well as unplanned system delays. The problem is solved by first developing a static linear programming model of the rock winder system. The model is built on a discrete dynamic winder model and consists of physical and operational winder system constraints and an energy cost based objective function. Secondly a model predictive control based scheduling algorithm is applied to the model to provide closed-loop feedback control. The scheduling algorithm first solves the linear programming problem before applying an adapted branch and bound integer solution methodology to obtain a near optimal integer schedule solution. The scheduling algorithm also compensates for situations resulting in infeasible linear programming solutions. The simulation results show the model predictive control based scheduling algorithm to be able to successfully generate hoist schedules that result in steady state solutions in all scenarios studied, including where delays are enforced. The energy cost objective function is proven to be very effective in ensuring minimal hoisting during expensive peak periods and maximum hoisting during low energy cost off-peak periods. The algorithm also ensures that the hoist target is achieved while controlling all system states within or around their boundaries for a sustainable and continuous hoist schedule. Copyright / Dissertation (MEng)--University of Pretoria, 2010. / Electrical, Electronic and Computer Engineering / Unrestricted

The dynamic response of the demand is defined as the time-domain real and reactive power response to a voltage disturbance, and it represents the dynamic load characteristics. This thesis develops a methodology for probabilistic estimation and prediction of dynamic responses of the demand at bulk supply points. The main outcome of the research is being able to predict the contribution of different categories of loads to the total demand mix and their controllability without conducting detailed customer surveys or collecting smart meter data, and to predict the dynamic response of the demand without performing field tests. The prediction of the contributions of different load categories and their controllability and load characteristics in the near future (e.g., day ahead) plays an important role in system analysis and planning, especially in the short-term dispatch and control. However, the research related to this topic is missing in the publically available literature, and an approach needs to be developed to enable the prediction of the participation of different loads in total load mix, their controllability and the dynamic response of the demand. This research contributes to a number of areas, such as load forecasting, load disaggregation and load modelling. First, two load forecasting methodologies which have not been compared before are compared; and based on the results of comparison and considering the actual requirements in this research, a methodology is selected and used to predict both the real and reactive power. Second, a unique methodology for load disaggregation is developed. This methodology enables the estimation of the contributions of different load categories to the total demand mix and their controllability based on RMS measured voltage and real and reactive power. The confidence level of the estimation is also assessed. The methodology for disaggregation is integrated with the load forecasting tool to enable prediction of load compositions and dynamic responses of the demand. The prediction is validated with data collected from real UK power network. Finally, based on the prediction, an example of load shifting is used to demonstrate that different dynamic responses can be obtained based on the availability and redistribution of controllable devices and that load shifting decisions, i.e., demand side management actions, should be made based not only on the amount of demand to be shifted, but also on predicted responses before and after load shifting.

Distribution load flow and state estimation are two important functions in distribution energy management systems (DEMS) and advanced distribution automation (ADA) systems. Distribution load flow analysis is a tool which helps to analyze the status of a power distribution system under steady-state operating conditions. In this research, an effective and comprehensive load flow algorithm is developed to extensively incorporate the distribution system components. Distribution system state estimation is a mathematical procedure which aims to estimate the operating states of a power distribution system by utilizing the information collected from available measurement devices in real-time. An efficient and computationally effective state estimation algorithm adapting the weighted-least-squares (WLS) method has been developed in this research. Both the developed algorithms are tested on different I testeeders and the results obtained are justified.

Grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) capacity is increasing worldwide, mainly due to extensive subsidy schemes for renewable electricity generation. A majority of newly installed systems are distributed small-scale systems located in distribution grids, often at residential customers. Recent developments suggest that such distributed PV generation (PV-DG) could gain more interest in Sweden in the near future. With prospects of decreasing system prices, an extensive integration does not seem impossible. In this PhD thesis the opportunities for utilisation of on-site PV generation and the consequences of a widespread introduction are studied. The specific aims are to improve modelling of residential electricity demand to provide a basis for simulations, to study load matching and grid interaction of on-site PV and to add to the understanding of power system impacts. Time-use data (TUD) provided a realistic basis for residential load modelling. Both a deterministic and a stochastic approach for generating different types of end-use profiles were developed. The models are capable of realistically reproducing important electric load properties such as diurnal and seasonal variations, short time-scale fluctuations and random load coincidence. The load matching capability of residential on-site PV was found to be low by default but possible to improve to some extent by different measures. Net metering reduces the economic effects of the mismatch and has a decisive impact on the production value and on the system sizes that are reasonable to install for a small-scale producer. Impacts of large-scale PV-DG on low-voltage (LV) grids and on the national power system were studied. Power flow studies showed that voltage rise in LV grids is not a limiting factor for integration of PV-DG. Variability and correlations with large-scale wind power were determined using a scenario for large-scale building-mounted PV. Profound impacts on the power system were found only for the most extreme scenarios. / Felaktigt tryckt som Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala Dissertations from the Faculty of Science and Technology 711

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The quality of the electric energy emerges as an area of great interest to both consumers and supply authorities. Searching half the subject prescribed, it is recognized, in the present time, the national and international existence of recommendations, norms and criteria directed toward the orientation of the boundary-values or reference for the diverse pointers that characterize the desired standard of quality. Inside of this context, if a measured harmonic voltage distortion exceeds that which is permitted, mitigation procedures must be promptly considered. These procedures can cause great conflict between the supplier and the consumer due to a lack of consensus on who is the mainly responsible for the harmonic distortions. The objective of this study is to establish a just procedure for sharing the responsibility for actual harmonic voltage distortion at a given point of common coupling between the supplier and the consumer. The methodology is based on the analysis of measured voltage and current signals at the PCC and on information related to the harmonic impedances involved in the process. Both the supply and the load impedances are considered and an approach for coupling with consumer representation is presented. The method is applied to a laboratory arrangement which uses a programmable voltage source in combination with a load comprising linear and nonlinear components. The results highlight the consistence of the proposal when identifying the individual contribution of the supplier and the consumer. By finding the supply and load harmonic contributions it is possible to achieve fairer cost sharing when mitigation procedures are needed to reduce voltage distortion to admissible legislation limits. / A qualidade da energia elétrica se apresenta como uma área de grande interesse para os consumidores e concessionárias de energia. Buscando meios para regulamentar o assunto, reconhece-se, na atualidade, a existência de recomendações, normas e critérios nacionais e internacionais voltados para a orientação dos valores limites ou de referência para os diversos indicadores que caracterizam o padrão de qualidade desejado. Dentro deste contexto, as distorções harmônicas nos sinais de tensão e corrente surgem como uma das questões mais preocupantes. Almejando, pois a preservação da qualidade do suprimento no que tange às distorções harmônicas, assim como para os demais itens de definição da qualidade, faz-se, muitas vezes necessário, a utilização de técnicas para a identificação da responsabilidade entre supridores e consumidores quanto à presença de distorções harmônicas de tensão junto aos pontos de acoplamento comum das redes de suprimento. Focando este tema, esta tese encontra-se direcionada ao estabelecimento e avaliação de desempenho de um procedimento sistematizado para o compartilhamento das responsabilidades entre supridores e consumidores, quanto à presença de distorções harmônicas de tensão junto aos pontos de acoplamento comum entre as partes. A metodologia é fundamentada na análise de sinais de tensão e corrente, obtidos dos sistemas, e em informações associadas com as impedâncias harmônicas próprias aos sistemas elétricos envolvidos no processo. A questão da modelagem da carga é ressaltada de modo especial. O método almeja contribuir na direção do estabelecimento de medidas de compensação quando os valores limites das distorções são superiores àqueles previstos pela legislação. Finalmente, objetivando ilustrar a aplicabilidade da proposta, ensaios laboratoriais são realizados a fim de evidenciar sua potencialidade. / Doutor em Ciências

FEM-Design används i allmänhet för dimensionering av huskonstruktioner. Detta arbete syftar på att göra programmet mer anpassningsbart för brodimensionering. Examensarbetet går ut på att integrera militära fordon i FEM-Design modeller. I det här examensarbete har hjulfordon, bandfordon och konvojer modellerats. Ett tidigare examensarbete om modellering av typfordon och lastmodellering kontrollerades i detta arbete. Det kontrollerades för att säkerställa att modelleringen har skett på ett korrekt sätt. Lasterna analyserades genom att sätta in de tidigare modellerade lasterna på en platta respektive en balk, där momentdiagrammet skulle ge samma resultat som om den hade gjorts för hand. De militära fordonenslasterna beräknades efter trafikverkets krav och resultatet definierades i FEM- Design, så att resultatet ska kunna användas vid dimensionering. Arbetet tillsammans med Strusoft AB resulterade i att 128 nya laster modellerades i FEM-Design. Dessutom kontrollerades 30 redan modellerade typfordonslaster av lastmodellerna 1–3. Resultatet visar en stor mängd nya fordonslaster som definierats i FEM-Design efter trafikverkets standarder. Om programmet även lyckas tillämpa fler funktioner som är mer anpassade för att definiera laster, genom vidare studier kan FEM-design i framtiden vara mer konkurrenskraftigt med de andra brokonstruktionsprogrammen. / FEM-Design is generally used for structural design of buildings. This work aims to make the program more adaptable to bridge design. It is possible in this way that loads of military vehicles are modeled in FEM-Design. In this work Wheeled vehicles, tire vehicles, convoys have been modeled. A previous degree project on modeling of special vehicles and load modeling was checked in this work. It was made to ensure that they were modeled correctly. The loads were analyzed by inserting the modeled loads on a plate or a beam where the moment diagram would give the same result as if it had been made by hand. The military vehicle loads were calculated according to the Swedish transportation administration requirements and the result was defined in FEM-Design so that the result can be used for load modelling. The work together with Strusoft AB resulted in 128 new loads being modeled in FEM-Design. In addition, 30 already modeled special vehicle loads of load models 1-3 were checked. The result shows a large number of new vehicle loads that are defined in FEM-Design according to the Swedish Transport Administration's standards. If the program also manages to apply more functions that are more adapted to define loads, through further studies, FEM design in the future can be more competitive with the other bridge design programs.