The master’s thesis describes known methods of signal measurement using principle of synchronous detection. Various methods are presented, their principles are examined and the problems when using them are analyzed. Further, procedures for reduction of adverse effects are described also. Second part of this thesis is focused on the instrument design. The instrument is intended for detection and processing of the output signals in a given optometric system. The proposed device is designed to operate on the principle of synchronous detection method using a vector signal evaluation. Advantages and disadvantages are discussed below.

This thesis deals with diagnostic fuel-cell parameters using electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. The document begins with brief explanation of fuel-cell operation and its basic principles. Thesis continues with description of fuel-cell voltage generation and influence of charge dual-layer on impedance. After that electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, signals used for perturbation and evaluation of impedance spectrum using Bode a Nyquist plot is described. Next part explains measurement of impedance spectrum using potentiostat in combination with lock-in amplifier or frequency response analyzer. Practical part of thesis is dedicated to electric circuit design of EIS module and software designed for automatic measurement of impedance spectrum. Last part shows results of EIS module testing.

The thesis is focused on the development of the electrochemical system with microfluidic platform for the detection of multiple biomarkers. It analyses the use of biomarkers for the early diagnosis of cancer. The theoretical part contains basic information about voltammetric methods and microfluidic systems. The practical part provides solutions to the microfluidic chips, including the description of the used materials, designs, methodologies of preparation and conclusions from the testing of the manufactured microfluidic systems. The thesis describes the lock-in electrochemical system which measures the response of 4 electrochemical cells simultaneously. For the electrochemical system measurements, an electrochemical chip consisting of 64 electrochemical cells was used. The results of the analysis include the processing of the system tests and detected voltammetric curves of the Fe2+/Fe3+ solution and cysteine.

[pt] Devido às exigências da largura de banda, especialmente nas comunicações sem fios que são cada dia maiores pelo aumento do numero de usuários, é necessário estudar a banda de EHF(Extremely High Frequency). A transmissão e recepção de dados em EHF constitui uma possível solução para aliviar a escassez do espectro e satisfazer a crescente demanda de maiores velocidades tentado resolver as limitações dos sistemas atuais. As ondas de radio na banda EHF vão de 30 até 300 GHz e são chamadas ondas milimétricas, já que seus comprimentos de onda vão de 10 mm até 1 mm. Neste trabalho, a montagem de um sistema de geração e detecção de ondas de EHF a partir do batimento de dois lasers é apresentada. Técnicas de modulação e demodulação em fase, amplitude e frequência na faixa de 200-300 GHz são demonstradas. / [en] The capacity of wireless communications has started to reach the top and the unstoppable increase of users is becoming a problem because more bandwidth is needed, which has gave rise to the study of EHF (Extremely High Frequency) band. Transmission and reception of data in EHF is shown as a solution to alleviate the scarcity of the spectrum and to meet the request of faster speeds to solve the limitation of the actual systems. The range of radio waves in EHF band go from 30 to 300 GHz, and are called millimeter waves since their wavelengths are between 10mm and 1mm. In this work is presented a system capable to generate and detect EHF waves from the beating of two lasers, and at the same time different modulation and demodulation techniques (phase, amplitude and frequency) are presented.

À cause de leur diffusion et de leur absorption des radiations solaires, les aérosols atmosphériques jouent un rôle important dans l'évolution du climat terrestre. Les techniques de mesure actuelles apportent certes, des connaissances, sur le forçage radiatif mais les résultats possèdent généralement de larges incertitudes, souvent du même ordre de grandeur que la valeur elle-même. Ces incertitudes sont causées par le manque de précision sur les données liées aux propriétés optiques estimées de ces aérosols (comme l'absorption, la diffusion ou l'extinction). Elles découlent principalement des techniques de mesures actuelles : à l'effet de chargement des filtres (lors de mesures classiques par filtres), aux mesures limitées par l'étendue spectrale des instruments, aux conditions d'échantillonnage différents lors de mesures séparées, etc. Dans ce travail de thèse, j'ai développé puis testé des instruments optiques et électroniques dans le but d'augmenter la précision des mesures des coefficients d'extinction et d'absorption des aérosols. (1) Deux spectrophones PhotAccoustique (PA) sont développés afin d'améliorer les mesures d'absorption des aérosols grâce à des mesures directes et sans filtres. Une première génération utilisant un rayonnement à 444 nm permet de réduire les incertitudes de mesure de 20-30% (obtenue par la technique d'échantillonnage par filtres) à 7,4% et 4,6% pour la détermination des coefficients d'absorption massique du carbone suie et de cendres volcaniques, respectivement. Transformé en spectrophone PA à multi-longueurs d'onde opérant conjointement à 444,532 et 660 nm, il permet alors de caractériser la dépendance spectrale du Coefficient d'Absorption d'Ångström (CAA). Les valeurs du CAA du carbone suie sont en accord avec les résultats publiés. Celles obtenues lors de l'analyse de deux échantillons de cendres volcaniques résultant de l'éruption du Eyjafjallajökull sont similaires au CAA du carbone brun,prouvent la présence d'importantes quantités d'éléments organiques. (2) Un extinctiomètre, basé sur le principe de la spectroscopie d'absorption en cavité à source large bande et incohérente (IBBCEAS), est ensuite développé afin de suivre l'évolution des propriétés optiques d'Aérosols Organiques Secondaires (AOS) produits par la photolyse du 2-nitrophénol dans une chambre de simulation atmosphérique de l'University College de Cork (Irlande). Leurs coefficients d'extinction et d'absorption sont suivis par cet extinctiomètre et un spectrophone PA durant tout le processus de production. Les évolutions des propriétés optiques des AOS confirment l'effet du vieillissement atmosphérique. (3) Une nouvelle architecture de détection synchrone est développé afin de rendre notre prototype plus léger, plus compact, mieux adapté aux applications in situ et plus particulièrement aux drones, techniques émergentes qui permettent de caractériser le profil vertical des aérosols dans l'atmosphère. Cette détection synchrone innovante, évaluée lors de la mesure de la concentration de NO₂ ambiant (niveau de concentration de quelques ppbv) possède une précision et une reproductibilité de mesures comparable à la détection synchrone SR830, commercialisée par la société Stanford Research Inc. L'évaluation précise de l'impact climatique des aérosols nécessite une quantification exacte et non biaisée de leurs propriétés optiques. À ce jour, elle reste un défi majeur dans la recherche sur les sciences de l'atmosphère et du changement climatique. Ainsi, des informations sur la taille des particules (liée à l'absorption sélective en longueur d'onde) nécessitent des mesures étendues sur de larges régions spectrales du rayonnement solaire principale. Le développement d'un albédomète large bande à haute précision, dédié à la mesure simultanée des coefficients d'extinction et d'absorption des aérosols est en cours. / Atmospheric aerosols are known to play an important role in earth climate by scattering and absorbing solar radiation. However, the aerosol radiative forcing effect is still known with large uncertainties (almost equal to the magnitude of the aerosol radiative forcing). The uncertainties are mainly caused by inaccurate estimates of aerosol optical properties (such as its absorption, scattering and extinction coefficients) using the currently available measurement techniques, with result in filter loading effect in classic filter technique, the uncertainty due to different sampling conditions for separate measurements of aerosol optical properties in combination of different techniques or due to the measurements at limited spectral wavelength ranges. My PhD work was carried out on the developments and applications of optical and electronic instruments for accurate measurements of aerosol extinction and absorption coefficient : (1) Photoacoustic spectrophones were developed for filter-free direct measurements of aerosol absorption with high accuracy. Measurements uncertainties down to about 7.4% and 4.6% (compared to about 20-30% in filter-based measurements) were achieved for the determination of mass absorption coefficients of black carbon and volcanic ash samples, respectively, using a single-wavelength PA spectrophone operating at 444 nm. A 3-wavelength PA spectrophone operating at 444,532 and 660 nm was developed and deployed for characterizing wavelength-dependent optical properties of aerosol absorption Ångström coefficient (AAC). The determined AAC of black carbon was well consistent with the previously reported value. Our AAC values of two volcanic ash samples from 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull, similar to the AAC of brown carbon, indicated abundant organic compounds in the volcanic ash samples. The developed multi-wavelength PA spectrophone was tested and validated in an intensive field campaign measurements of environmental particles in Grenoble (France). Side-by-side inter-comparison measurements using an aethalometer showed a lineat correlation of the measured aerosol absorption coefficients from both instruments. (2) An extinctiometer based on IBBCEAS was developed for study of optical properties of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) produced from photolysis of 2-nitrophenol in an atmospheric simulation chamber at University College Cork (Ireland). Simultaneous monitoring of the SOA extinction and absorption (in conjuction with a PA spectrophone) coefficients was performed during its whole production process, the measured evolutions of the SOA optical properties highlighted the atmospheric aging effect. (3) In order to render optical sensor lightweight and suitable for field applications, in particular for the newly emerging unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) applications, a novel architecture of lock-in amplifier (LIA) was proposed and developed in the framework of this Phd Research. The novel LIA, evaluated with an inter-comparison measurement of ambient NO₂ at the ppbv concentration level, shows an identical performance (in terms of measurements accuracy and precision) as the widely used commercial LIA (SR830, Stanford Research Inc.), while using a simplified and lightweight hardware architecture. Evaluation of the aerosol impact on climate requires accurate and unbiased quantification of the its wavelength-dependent optical properties over a wide spectral region of the major solar radiation, which can provide information on particle size (due to the wavelength dependence of scattering by fine particles) as well as insights on aerosol chemical composition (because of its wavelength selective absorption). To date, it is still a key challenge in atmospheric science and climate change research. Development of a broadband aerosol albedometer is ongoing, which is dedicated to simultaneous measurements of aerosol extinction and absorption coefficients with high-accuracy and high-precision.

Le sujet de cette thèse concerne l’étude de dynamiques induites par des impulsions lasers femtosecondes intenses. La première dynamique étudiée porte sur l’alignement de la molécule de CO2, pure ou en mélange avec l’argon ou l’hélium, en phase gazeuse dense (jusqu’à 20 bar), ce régime n’ayant jamais été étudié expérimentalement auparavant. L’alignement moléculaire, quand il est induit par une impulsion laser femtoseconde et intense, présente deux contributions qui apparaissent après passage de l’impulsion : un alignement permanent et un alignement transitoire. L’influence des collisions se manifeste alors par des transferts de population entre états rotationnels qui ont pour conséquence de faire décroître ces deux contributions. Le temps de décroissance de l’alignement permanent est seulement lié aux collisions inélastiques tandis que le temps de décroissance de l’alignement transitoire est lié à la fois aux collisions inélastiques et élastiques. Nous montrons alors que la détermination expérimentale de la contribution des collisions élastiques, expérimentalement difficile d’accès, est possible à partir de l’analyse des traces d’alignement moléculaire. Cette analyse se base sur la modélisation des taux de transfert entre états liés aux collisions inélastiques par des lois semi-empiriques du type ECS-(E)P. La contribution élastique des collisions déterminée est en bon accord avec des valeurs calculées selon un modèle classique. La deuxième dynamique étudiée est la dépendance en éclairement de l’effet Kerr électronique. Nous poursuivons alors les travaux menés par Loriot et al. en 2009 qui ont montré que l’indice Kerr électronique saturait avant de s’annuler puis de présenter une contribution négative lorsqu’on augmente l’éclairement (inversion du signe pour quelques dizaines de térawatts par centimètre carré). Nous avons alors étendu cette étude en observant à une longueur d’onde de 400 nm (800 nm dans l’étude originale) cette inversion du signe de l’indice Kerr dans l’air. / This thesis is devoted to the study of dynamics induced by intense femtoseconds lasers pulses. The first studied dynamics deals with molecular alignment of CO2-X mixtures (X=CO2, Ar, N2), in dense gases (up to 20 bar). Up to now, this regime has never been studied experimentally. In the field-free regime (after laser/matter interaction), molecular alignment exhibits two components : a permanent alignment and a transient one. The influence of collisions appears through population transfers between rotational states, which leads to a decrease of these two contributions. Permanent alignment relaxation time is only tied to inelastics collisions whereas transient alignment relaxation time is tied to both inelastics and elastics ones. We show that the determination of the elastic collisions contribution (for which the experimental determination is uneasy), is then possible thanks to the analysis of molecular alignment measurements. This analysis is based on the modelling of inelastics rotational state-to-state transfer rates by ECS-(E)P semi-empirical laws. The elastic contribution of collisions is experimentally determined and happened to be in a good agreement with classically calculated ones. The second studied dynamics is the intensity dependence of the electronic Kerr effect. We pursue the works led by Loriot and al. in 2009 which showed that electronic Kerr index saturated, before nullifying and then presenting a negative contribution when the intensity increases (inversion of the sign for some tens of terawatts by square centimeter). We complete the previous study by performing similar measurements in air at 400 nm (800 nm in the original study).

LBIC is a technique for scanning the local quantum efficiency of solar cells. This kind of measurements needs a highly specialized, and time critical controlling software. In 1996 the client, professor Markus Rinio, constructed an LBIC system, and wrote the controlling software as a Turbo-Pascal 7.0 application, running under the MS-DOS 6.22 operating system. By now (2018) both the software and several hardware components are in dire need to be modernized. This thesis thoroughly describes several important aspects of this work, and the considerations needed for a successful result. This includes both very foundational choices about the software architecture, the choice of suitable operating system, the threading model, and the adaptation to new hardware with vastly different behavior. The project also included a new hardware module for position reports and instrument triggering, as well as several adaptations to transform the DOS-based LBIC software into a pleasant modern GUI application.