Bei ca. 10 bis 20 % aller Totgeburten wird autoptisch eine Lungenhypoplasie diagnostiziert. Nierenfehlbildungen, vorzeitiger Blasensprung, Hydrops fetalis und Skelettfehlbildungen sind häufige Ursachen eines Minderwuchses der Lunge, der immer mit einer schlechten Prognose einhergeht. Bis heute gibt es jedoch kein zuverlässiges Verfahren zur pränatalen Diagnose einer Lungenhypoplasie, die das geburtshilfliche Management erheblich erleichtern könnte. Bei Totgeburten wird eine Lungenhypoplasie pathologisch-anatomisch durch einen verminderten Lungen / Körpergewichts-Index (L/KG- Index) und einen verringerten Radial Alveolar Count (RAC) belegt. Ziel dieser Studie war es, ein sonographisches Verfahren zu validieren, mit dem man eine fetale Lungenhypoplasie schon während der Schwangerschaft diagnostizieren könnte. Die Untersuchung basierte auf gestationsaltersabhängigen Referenzwerten für verschiedene Biometrieparameter, die das fetale Lungenwachstum gut erfassen. Die aufgestellten Normkurven wurden hinsichtlich ihres prädiktiven Werts zur Vorhersage einer Lungenhypoplasie geprüft. Dazu wurden Messungen bei 39 Feten mit einem hohem Risiko zur Entwicklung einer Lungenhypoplasie zwischen der 17. und 30. SSW vorgenommen. Zur Auswertung gelangten nur die 29 Fälle, bei denen der Verdacht einer Lungenhypoplasie pathologisch-anatomisch belegt oder widerlegt wurde. Die Patienten wurden vier verschiedenen Krankheitsbildern zugeordnet: Vorzeitiger Blasensprung, Hydrothorax, Nierenfehlbildungen und Skelettfehlbildungen. Es wurden jeweils der anterior-posteriore und der seitliche Durchmessers in Höhe des Zwerchfells, des Vierkammerblicks und der Clavicula sowie die Lungenlänge gemessen. Untersuchungen in der Vierkammerblickebene hatten mit einer Sensitivität von 61 % und einer Spezifität von 75 % die höchsten prädiktiven Werte zur Vorhersage einer fetalen Lungenhypoplasie. Die Untersuchung in der VKB-Ebene hat den Vorteil, daß die Einstellung dieser Ebene bei Routineultraschalluntersuchungen während der Schwangerschaft durchgeführt wird und so in der Praxis am ehesten zur Anwendung kommt. Im Vergleich zur Literatur ist unser Verfahren auch in der Vierkammerblickebene zur pränatalen Diagnose einer Lungenhypoplasie relativ unzuverlässig. Messungen in der Clavicula- und der Zwerchfellebene und Messungen der Lungenlänge waren in dieser Untersuchung zur pränatalen Diagnose einer Lungenhypoplasie ungeeignet. Mit Sensitivitäten zwischen 13 % und 47 % stellten sie keine Hilfestellung zur Vorhersage eines Minderwuchses der fetalen Lunge dar. Die Aufschlüsselung der Feten in einzelne Krankheitsbilder erbrachte weitere Informationen. Dabei wurden nur die Messungen in der VKB-Ebene ausgewertet. Bei den Feten mit vorzeitigem Blasensprung, Hydrothorax und Skelettfehlbildungen lagen die Sensitivitäten zwischen 60 % und 100 % und waren mit den Ergebnissen aus der Literatur vergleichbar. Bei den Feten mit Nierenfehlbil-dungen waren die Ergebnisse mit Sensitivitäten von 27 % enttäuschend. Bei der Auswertung wurde deutlich, daß es von großer Bedeutung ist, sowohl den anterior-posterioren als auch den seitlichen Durchmesser zu messen, da nur so zuverlässig die Ausdehnung der Lunge zu erfassen ist. Insgesamt kann das biometrische Verfahren als einfache, gut reproduzierbare, nicht invasive und schnell durchzuführende Möglichkeit zur Untersuchung der fetalen Lunge bezeichnet werden. Es kann wichtige Hinweise geben, eine Lungenhypoplasie schon pränatal zu diagnostizieren. Eine sichere Einschätzung ist jedoch nicht möglich. Neben der Lungenbiometrie könnten evtl. auch Messungen der fetalen Atembewegungen, Messungen der Fruchtwassermenge und dopplersonographische Darstellung der Lungengefäße zur Diagnose beitragen. Letztendlich bleibt eine Lungenhypoplasie eine pathologisch-anatomische Diagnose, die nur durch Autopsie gesichert werden kann. Inwiefern hier neue Aspekte in die Diagnosestellung einbezogen werden können, bleibt zukünftigen Untersuchungen vorbehalten. / Evaluation of sonographic lung biometry as a method to diagnose lung hypoplasia prenatallyIn 10 to 20 % of all stillbirths lung hypoplasia can be diagnosed by autopsy. Causes for the underdevelopment of the lung, which indicates poor prognosis, are urinary tractanomalies, preterm rupture of membranes, hydrops fetalis and skeletal dysplasia. Up to now there is no reliable method to diagnose lung hypoplasia prenatally. In stillbirths lung hypoplasia is proven by autopsy by a decreased lung/body weight index and a low radial alveolar count (RAC). Aim of this study was to evaluate a sonographic method to diagnose lung hypoplasia during pregnancy. The examination was based on normograms for different biometrical parameters, which describe the fetal lung growth between the 15th and the 30th week gestation. The predictive value of the reference curves was determined. 39 fetuses at high risk for developing lung hypoplasia were examined sonographically between the 17th and 30th week gestation. Only the measurements of 29 fetuses, whose diagnosis was proven or disproven by autopsy, were evaluated. The patients were splitted into four groups: preterm rupture of membranes, hydrothorax, urinary tract anomalies and skeletal dysplasia. In each fetus seven different parameters were measured: the anterior-posterior and the transverse diameter at the level of the diaphragm, the four chamber view and the clavicula and additionally the lung length. The best results were found at the level of the four chamber view (sensitivity 61 % and specifity 75 %). An advantage of measurements at the level of the four chamber view is that this examination is performed in normal routine Ultrasound tests during pregnancy. So measurements in this plane could become most important in clinical life. In comparison to other published studies even at the level of the four chamber view our method was not reliable to predict fetal lung hypoplasia. Measurements at the level of the clavicula and of the diaphragm and measurements of the lung length were not useful to diagnose lung hypoplasia before birth. Sensitivities between 13 and 47 % were found. Splitting the fetuses into different etiological groups gave additional information. Only the measurements at the level of the four chamber view were evaluated. In the groups preterm rupture of membranes, hydrothorax and skeletal dysplasia sensitivities between 60 and 100 % were found. These results can be compared with published results. In the group urinary tract anomalies the result was disappointing (sensitivity 27 %). During the evaluation it could be seen easily that it was very important to measure the anterior-posterior as well as the transverse diameter. Only this technique gives the possibility to measure the whole extension of the lung. Summarizing: The biometrical method is a simple, easily reproducable, not invasive and quick possibility to examine the fetal lung. It can help to predict fetal lung hypoplasia. However a reliable diagnosis could not be made. In addition to lung biometry measurements of the the fetal breathing excursions, measurements of the amount of amniotic fluid and examination of the pulmonal circulation may be useful for a prenatal diagnosis. Up to now lung hypoplasia only can be proved by autopsy. It has to be examined in future studies, if any new aspects can help to find a prenatal diagnosis.

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi predizer o prognóstico perinatal em fetos com derrame pleural isolado por meio da medida do volume pulmonar estimado pela ultrassonografia tridimensional. MÉTODO: Estudo retrospectivo, entre julho de 2005 e julho de 2010, com 19 fetos com derrame pleural isolado (ausência de causas infecciosas, imunes, anomalias cromossômicas ou estruturais associadas) acompanhados no Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Os volumes pulmonares foram obtidos pela ultrassonografia tridimensional (Voluson 730 Expert, GE Medical System, Kretzechnick, Áustria) em dois períodos, no momento do diagnóstico (20 26 semanas) e próximo ao parto (duas semanas antecedentes ao parto ou até 36 semanas), e mensurados pela técnica VOCAL (Virtual Organ Computer Aided Analysis) com rotação de 30º. Os volumes obtidos (observados) foram comparados com valores esperados para idade gestacional, e a razão entre o volume total fetal observado/esperado (VPTo/e) foi avaliada de acordo com a mortalidade perinatal e morbidade neonatal (necessidade de ventilação mecânica por mais que 48 horas). RESULTADOS: Dezenove fetos com derrame pleural isolado foram analisados no período do estudo. Doze (63,2%) crianças sobreviveram. Dos sobreviventes, sete (58,3%) apresentaram morbidade respiratória. O VPTo/e no primeiro exame ultrassonográfico não se associou significativamente com mortalidade (VPTo/e: 0,42±0,19 nos sobreviventes contra 0,30±0,08 nos não sobreviventes, p=0,11). No segundo exame, por outro lado, VPTo/e foi significativamente menor nos casos que faleceram (0,24±0,08) em relação aos sobrevivente (0,58±0,21; p<0,01) e nos que necessitaram de ventilação mecânica prolongada (0,35±0,08) comparados aos que não necessitaram (0,68±0,10; p<0.01). CONCLUSÃO: O volume pulmonar fetal medido pela ultrassonografia tridimensional pode ser utilizado para predizer o prognóstico de fetos com derrame pleural isolado. / OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to predict the perinatal outcome in isolated pleural effusion using fetal lung volumes assessed by three-dimensional ultrasonography. METHODS: A retrospective study conducted between July 2005 and July 2010, in which 19 fetuses with isolated pleural effusion (absence of infection, immunological causes, chromosomal anomalies and associated structural anomalies) at Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Fetal lung volumes were assessed by three-dimensional ultrasonography (Voluson 730 Expert, GE Medical System, Kretzechnick, Áustria) in two periods: at diagnosis (20-26 weeks) and nears the delivery (2 weeks before delivery or at 36 weeks), by VOCAL technique (Virtual Organ Computer Aided Analysis) with rotation of 30o. The observed volumes were compared to expected values for determine gestational age, and the observed/expected total fetal lung volume ratio (o/e-TFLV) was evaluated according to perinatal death and neonatal morbidity (need for mechanical ventilation longer than 48 hours). RESULTS: A total of 19 fetuses with isolated pleural effusion were evaluated during the study period. Twelve (63.2%) infants survived. Among the survivors, seven (58.3%) had severe respiratory distress at birth. The o/e-TFLV at the first ultrasound examination was not associated statistically with mortality (o/e-TLFV: 0.42±0.19 in survivors x 0.30±0.08 among those that died, p=0.11). On the second ultrasound examination, on the other hand, the o/e-TFLV was significantly reduced in those cases that died (0.24±0.08) whilst in survivors (0.58±0.21; p<0.01) and in those that needed mechanical ventilation (0.35±0.08) when compared to those that did not need it (0.68±0.10; p<0.01). CONCLUSION: Fetal lung volumes measured by three-dimensional ultrasonography may be useful to predict perinatal outcome in fetuses with primary pleural effusion

OBJETIVO: O objetivo deste estudo foi predizer o prognóstico perinatal em fetos com derrame pleural isolado por meio da medida do volume pulmonar estimado pela ultrassonografia tridimensional. MÉTODO: Estudo retrospectivo, entre julho de 2005 e julho de 2010, com 19 fetos com derrame pleural isolado (ausência de causas infecciosas, imunes, anomalias cromossômicas ou estruturais associadas) acompanhados no Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Os volumes pulmonares foram obtidos pela ultrassonografia tridimensional (Voluson 730 Expert, GE Medical System, Kretzechnick, Áustria) em dois períodos, no momento do diagnóstico (20 26 semanas) e próximo ao parto (duas semanas antecedentes ao parto ou até 36 semanas), e mensurados pela técnica VOCAL (Virtual Organ Computer Aided Analysis) com rotação de 30º. Os volumes obtidos (observados) foram comparados com valores esperados para idade gestacional, e a razão entre o volume total fetal observado/esperado (VPTo/e) foi avaliada de acordo com a mortalidade perinatal e morbidade neonatal (necessidade de ventilação mecânica por mais que 48 horas). RESULTADOS: Dezenove fetos com derrame pleural isolado foram analisados no período do estudo. Doze (63,2%) crianças sobreviveram. Dos sobreviventes, sete (58,3%) apresentaram morbidade respiratória. O VPTo/e no primeiro exame ultrassonográfico não se associou significativamente com mortalidade (VPTo/e: 0,42±0,19 nos sobreviventes contra 0,30±0,08 nos não sobreviventes, p=0,11). No segundo exame, por outro lado, VPTo/e foi significativamente menor nos casos que faleceram (0,24±0,08) em relação aos sobrevivente (0,58±0,21; p<0,01) e nos que necessitaram de ventilação mecânica prolongada (0,35±0,08) comparados aos que não necessitaram (0,68±0,10; p<0.01). CONCLUSÃO: O volume pulmonar fetal medido pela ultrassonografia tridimensional pode ser utilizado para predizer o prognóstico de fetos com derrame pleural isolado. / OBJECTIVE The aim of the present study was to predict the perinatal outcome in isolated pleural effusion using fetal lung volumes assessed by three-dimensional ultrasonography. METHODS: A retrospective study conducted between July 2005 and July 2010, in which 19 fetuses with isolated pleural effusion (absence of infection, immunological causes, chromosomal anomalies and associated structural anomalies) at Hospital das Clínicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo. Fetal lung volumes were assessed by three-dimensional ultrasonography (Voluson 730 Expert, GE Medical System, Kretzechnick, Áustria) in two periods: at diagnosis (20-26 weeks) and nears the delivery (2 weeks before delivery or at 36 weeks), by VOCAL technique (Virtual Organ Computer Aided Analysis) with rotation of 30o. The observed volumes were compared to expected values for determine gestational age, and the observed/expected total fetal lung volume ratio (o/e-TFLV) was evaluated according to perinatal death and neonatal morbidity (need for mechanical ventilation longer than 48 hours). RESULTS: A total of 19 fetuses with isolated pleural effusion were evaluated during the study period. Twelve (63.2%) infants survived. Among the survivors, seven (58.3%) had severe respiratory distress at birth. The o/e-TFLV at the first ultrasound examination was not associated statistically with mortality (o/e-TLFV: 0.42±0.19 in survivors x 0.30±0.08 among those that died, p=0.11). On the second ultrasound examination, on the other hand, the o/e-TFLV was significantly reduced in those cases that died (0.24±0.08) whilst in survivors (0.58±0.21; p<0.01) and in those that needed mechanical ventilation (0.35±0.08) when compared to those that did not need it (0.68±0.10; p<0.01). CONCLUSION: Fetal lung volumes measured by three-dimensional ultrasonography may be useful to predict perinatal outcome in fetuses with primary pleural effusion

INTRODUCTION. Congenital diaphragmatic hernia (CDH) combines a congenital malformation of the diaphragm with lung hypoplasia, leading to severe respiratory distress and intractable pulmonary hypertension of the newborn. Despite advances in prenatal diagnosis and neonatal intensive care, CDH is associated with high mortality and devastating morbidities. In the absence of curative treatment, numerous prenatal therapies have been used experimentally with varying success. So far, only fetal tracheal occlusion has been tested in clinical trials, but the consequences for the human lung are poorly known. AIMS. To further characterize the rabbit model of CDH, which was subsequently used to assess the effects of prenatal therapies on airway and pulmonary vascular development, including tracheal occlusion, and two novel approaches, perfluorooctylbromide and an activator of soluble guanylate cyclase (BAY 41–2272), which were given through tracheal instillation.METHODS. After a diaphragmatic incision during the pseudoglandular stage, fetal rabbits were randomized against placebo/sham operation during the saccular stage for tracheal occlusion, perfluorocarbon or BAY 41–2272. At term operated fetuses and controls were subject to evaluation of lung mechanics and/or hemodynamics as well as postmortem lung analyses. Human fetal and neonatal lung tissue, including controls and CDH with tracheal occlusion or expectant management, was analyzed histologically and biochemically.RESULTS. The rabbit model of CDH was characterized by reduced lung volumes and impaired compliance, disorders of elastin deposition within alveolar walls, and downregulation of elastogenesis-related genes. Moreover, this model reproduced features of pulmonary hypertension, including high right ventricular pressure and level of N-terminal-pro-B type natriuretic peptide, remodeling of pulmonary arterioles, decreased alveolar capillary density, and downregulation of vasodilation-related genes. In the rabbit model, lung distension caused by tracheal occlusion improved alveolar formation and elastogenesis, yet without correction of lung mechanical parameters. Tracheal occlusion increased also the expression of other extracellular matrix components, which reflected myofibroblast activity, and reduced the transcription of surfactant-associated proteins. Human neonatal lungs exposed to fetal tracheal occlusion displayed alveolar deposits of collagen and myofibroblasts. In human CDH as well as in the rabbit model of CDH, tracheal occlusion enhanced the pulmonary expression of transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) and Rho kinase−associated proteins to the detriment of activation of SMAD2/3, which is normally detected in human lungs with advancing gestation. As an alternative to tracheal occlusion, pulmonary distension by perfluorocarbon in the fetal rabbit model of CDH improved lung mechanics and alveolar elastogenesis without transcriptional changes in extracellular matrix, surfactant protein genes or TGFβ. Finally, intratracheal instillation of BAY 41–2272 in the rabbit fetuses with CDH improved hemodynamics, reduced medial hypertrophy of pulmonary arterioles, and increased capillary bed formation by stimulating endothelial cell proliferation.CONCLUSIONS. In the fetal rabbit model of CDH, poor lung function after tracheal occlusion is compatible with activation of TGFβ and imbalance in extracellular matrix and epithelial homeostasis. In human CDH newborns treated by fetal tracheal occlusion, changes in the pulmonary interstitium and impaired TGFβ signaling raise the question of disturbances of postnatal lung development induced by tracheal occlusion. As potential alternatives to tracheal occlusion, prenatal perfluorocarbon improves lung hypoplasia, whereas prenatal BAY 41–2272 attenuates pulmonary hypertension. / Doctorat en Sciences médicales (Médecine) / info:eu-repo/semantics/nonPublished