Animal manures are land applied in agronomic systems to supply essential crop nutrients and decrease dependency on chemical fertilizers. Liquid manures are traditionally surface broadcast to fields and sometimes incorporated to reduce odor and nutrient losses; however, incorporation is incompatible with no-till agriculture. Subsurface manure injection is a no-till compatible alternative application method which addresses these concerns, but likely changes the dynamics of nutrient cycling. Comparison of the two application methods has yielded mixed results and warrants further research. Therefore, the objectives of this research were to contrast the surface broadcast and subsurface injection of dairy slurry on nitrogen and carbon cycling, crop yield, and biologic responses to proxy soil health. In a forced air-flow laboratory incubation, manure injection reduced ammonia volatilization by 87% and 98% in a sandy loam and clay loam soil, respectively. The increased ammoniacal nitrogen recovery resulted in increases of soil nitrate of 13% for the sandy loam and 26% for the clay loam after 40 days of incubation. Microbial measurements were inconclusive in the laboratory. In 7 site-years of field study, soil nitrate was greater in 7 of 25 measurements under manure injection and 30% higher under injection on average during the corn pre side-dress nitrate test (PSNT) time. Soil nitrate sampling methods were assessed for fields injected with manure; a standard random sampling method had a coefficient of variation (C.V.) of 28% and was as equally repeatable as utilizing an equi-spaced distribution of cores taken across an injection band, C.V. of 30%. Both biological responses, carbon mineralization (C-min) and substrate induced respiration (SIR), were not different between application methods; both were highly variable and C-min was especially intensive logistically. Corn yield showed no consistent response to application method, but probably was not nitrogen limited. In 2 years of field study conducted on a university research farm injection resulted in greater 0-15cm soil nitrate levels than surface broadcast 1 week after application and persisted for 9 additional weeks. In injected plots, nitrate was concentrated in the injection band; nitrate movement was significant only 10cm lateral to the injection band but overall distribution fit well to a second degree polynomial, especially 2 and 4 weeks after application, R2>0.80. Evidence of leaching was observed in one year after receiving considerable rainfall in weeks 1 and 2 after application. When corn grain yield was averaged year over year, injection was 26% greater than the no- manure control, and 15% greater than surface application. Both biological metrics, C-min and microbial biomass, were stratified by depth; C-min was concentrated within the manure band leading to greater mineralization under injected applications. Microbial biomass was significantly higher under injection at the 15-30cm depth. Overall biological response to manure application method was inconclusive, however manure injection is superior to surface application in terms of nitrogen recovery. / Doctor of Philosophy / Animal manures supply nutrients essential to crop growth (notably nitrogen and phosphorous); liquid manures (pigs and dairy cattle) are commonly applied by spraying them on soils before tillage. Where no-tillage is used as a conservation measure subsurface injection can be used as an alternative to leaving manure on the soil surface. The purpose of this research was to assess nutrient cycling, crop yield, and soil health impacts of surface applied and injected dairy manure applications. Manure injection greatly reduces a nitrogen loss pathway, and as a result supplies more plant available nitrogen to the crop. Methods of soil sampling fields using injection were compared and a recommended sampling method was defined. Transport of a form of nitrogen vulnerable to movement in the ground was found to only travel 10cm away from where manure was injected. Transport of this form of nitrogen below the injection area was observed after abundant rainfall. Crop yields were sometimes higher under injection however, yields are also determined by factors other than nitrogen. Soil health was not repeatably improved under one application method, but microbial activity was greater at shallower soil depths.

Overapplication of manure in sensitive watersheds is an issue of increasing environmental concern due to increased nutrient loading and antibiotic release into aquatic environments. Manure is typically surface applied, leaving nutrients and antibiotics vulnerable to loss at the soil surface. Elevated nutrient and antibiotic loading into water bodies can increase the rate of eutrophication and occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in areas of high animal agriculture production, such as the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Manure injection is a new technology that incorporates manure into the soil with minimal disturbance, and management strategies that reduce manure loss from agricultural fields could prevent the transport of nutrients and antibiotics to sensitive waterways. However, little is known about the efficacy of dry litter injection to decrease nitrogen (N) loss when compared to surface application. Also, there are no studies that determine the effects of injection on antibiotic transport and transformation after manure application. Therefore, this project focused on changes in N cycling, orchardgrass hay yield and quality, and transport and transformation of pirlimycin and cephapirin, two common antibiotics in dairy production, when manure is injected. Subsurface injection eliminated ammonia volatilization and N loss in runoff and increased soil inorganic N when compared to surface application after volatilization, incubation, and rainfall simulation studies. Although these benefits did not translate to higher yields in orchardgrass hay, protein increased when poultry litter was injected, indicating greater N uptake. Injection of dairy manure decreased losses of pirlimycin to levels of the control when compared to surface application. Although, pirlimycin had a slower degradation rate within the injection slit compared to surface application, potentially increasing the amount of time soil microbes are exposed to antibiotics. In an incubation study, pirlimycin concentrations decreased after 7 days, but concentrations increased sharply after 14 days. This indicates that conjugates formed in the liver or digestive tract of dairy cows may revert back to the parent compound after manure application. With increased retention of nutrients and antibiotics, injection could be a best management practice used to reduce the loss of these compounds to the environment while increasing the quality of crops produced. / Ph. D.

Manure injection is an alternative manure application method that places manure in subsurface bands rather than spreading it evenly across the soil surface as done with the typical broadcasting method. The reduced exposure of manure to air under injection can lead to greater N retention when compared to broadcasting, but also alters the spatial distribution of manure. This altered spatial distribution of manure could alter soil nutrient dynamics and crop growth; however, literature exploring this subject is limited. Therefore, this dissertation aimed to compare soil nitrate and active carbon levels between manure injection and broadcasting, assess the spatial distribution of soil N under injection, and determine if the subsurface bands under injection cause differential crop growth. An 8-site on-farm study was conducted comparing spring manure applications under corn silage. This study found that soil NO3-N was the same under injection and broadcasting but did alter the spatial distribution of soil NO3-N as it was consistently elevated in the injection band compared to between bands. No differences in active carbon were observed, even when measuring the injection band directly. This finding calls into question the usefulness of measuring active carbon in manured systems. Corn silage yields were only significantly increased at 1 of 8 sites, and this occurred at the one site that did not receive a sidedress N application, which suggests that N was not limiting at the other seven sites. A small-scale research plot study examining fall manure applications under small grains found similar results to the previous study. No consistent differences in soil NO3-N were observed between injected, broadcast, and control plots; however, soil NO3-N was greater in the injection band compared to between, a difference that persisted for two months after manure application. Evidence of soil NO3-N leaching was observed in one study year, suggesting soil NO3-N leaching under fall manure applications should be examined. No consistent differences in soil active carbon were observed, either between manure application methods or injection bands. Furthermore, the alteration in soil NO3-N under injection did not lead to differential small grain growth. A 24 site on-farm study was conducted to assess potential differential growth of small grains following manure injection. This study found that soil NO3-N in the manure injection band compared to between bands was significantly increased in 13 of 24 sites and was on average 137% greater in-band at the 0-15 cm depth. This difference did not persist through small grain silage harvest as only 1 of 24 sites showed a significant difference in-band. Small grain maturity did not show any difference in 2021 due to late planting dates, but some differences were observed in the injection band compared to between bands one month after planting. As with soil NO3-N, these differences did not persist through silage harvest. Small grain forage quality parameters were not different in-band compared to between-band at harvest, while DM yield only differed in 3 of 24 sites, with 2 of those 3 sites being under wheat. The data presented in this dissertation indicates that manure injection causes differential soil NO3-N levels from banding. Accurately measuring soil NO3-N levels under injection was difficult due to the injection band being difficult to fully sample and suggests injected soil NO3-N levels were underestimated. No meaningful changes in crop growth were observed due to banding or different manure application methods. / Doctor of Philosophy / Manure injection is a more environmentally friendly method of manure application when compared to traditional surface broadcasting. While research is clear on the environmental benefits of manure injection, the agronomic benefits of injection are unclear. Therefore, this research aimed to compare soil nitrogen and crop response to manure injection. Manure injection did not result in consistently increased corn or small grain yields when compared to manure broadcasting. Soil nitrate was not typically altered between manure application methods, but this could have been due to our soil sampling method not sampling enough of the manure injection band. Manure injection did result in soil nitrate being concentrated in the area manure was injected. The elevated soil nitrate in the area manure was injected typically persisted 1-2 months after manure application but didn't persist to the end of the growing season. This early season increase in soil nitrate concentrations in the manure injection area did not result in differential small grain maturity in both a small-scale research plot study and a 24 site on-farm study. Three of 24 sites studied showed increased small grain yield when comparing the area manure was injected compared between injection bands, with two of these three sites being under wheat. This suggests small grain yield response to manure injection bands could be species dependent.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / The effects of the injection of liquid bovine waste (DLB) on the soil combined with the use of nitrification inhibitors, such as dicyanodiamide (DCD), is still poorly documented, mainly on N losses to the atmosphere via N-NH3 emission, (EUN), plant parameters and wheat and maize productivity in subtropical southern Brazil. Thus, the objective of the present work was to evaluate how the DLB application in the soil in notillage system (SPD) affects the ammonia emission (N-NH3) of the DLB in the system, as well as this practice Combined with DCD can affect EUN, plant parameters and wheat and maize yield. Four studies were conducted in the field at two distinct sites belonging to the Federal University of Santa Maria, one in Frederico Westphalen, RS, in a dystrophic Red Latosol, and the other in Santa Maria, RS, in an Alumínico (DLBs), DLBs + DCD, injected DLB (DLBi), DLBi + DCD, control and mineral fertilization (NPK) on the surface. The studies were conducted simultaneously at both sites. The application of DLB was performed manually with irrigators, while the injection was mechanized, at depth of 8-11 cm. The DCD dose used was 7 kg ha-1, mixed to the DLB instants before application to the soil. Compared to surface application, DLB injection in the soil proved to be efficient in reducing N-NH3 emissions to the atmosphere, both in wheat and maize. The efficiency of the injection was maximized when combined with DCD, increasing N-NH4 + retention in the system, also increased apparent N recovery (103%), N agronomic efficiency applied with DLBs and crop productivity compared to N Surface application. The best performance of the crops occurred in the treatment with DLB + DCD injection (DLBi + DCD). In addition, this practice was efficient in reducing N losses by volatilization of ammonia (N-NH3), guaranteeing greater N availability at Plants. In view of these results, the injection of DLB + DCD in soil in SPD is a promising alternative to soil surface application, as well as EUN, productivity and plant parameters in wheat and corn as well as beneficial In the reduction of N-NH3 emission. / Os efeitos da injeção de dejetos líquidos de bovinos (DLB) no solo combinada com o uso de inibidores de nitrificação, como a dicianodiamida (DCD), ainda é pouco documentado, principalmente sobre as perdas de N para atmosfera via emissão de NH3, a eficiência de uso do nitrogênio (EUN), parâmetros de planta e a produtividade de trigo e milho nas condições subtropicais do Sul do Brasil. Assim, o objetivo do trabalho foi avaliar como o modo de aplicação (injeção x superficial) do DLB no solo em sistema de plantio direto (SPD) afeta a emissão de amônia (N-NH3), bem como esta prática combinada com DCD pode afetar a EUN, parâmetros de planta e a produtividade de trigo e milho. Quatro estudos foram conduzidos simultaneamente a campo em dois locais distintos pertencentes à Universidade Federal de Santa Maria, um em Frederico Westphalen, RS, num Latossolo Vermelho Distrófico típico, e o outro em Santa Maria, RS, em um Argissolo Vermelho Alumínico úmbrico, no delineamento experimental de blocos ao acaso com quatro repetições dos seguintes tratamentos: DLB aplicados na superfície do solo (DLBs), DLBs+ DCD, DLB injetados (DLBi), DLBi + DCD, testemunha e adubação mineral (NPK) em superfície. A aplicação dos DLB foi realizada de forma manual com regadores, enquanto a injeção foi mecanizada, na profundidade de 8-11 cm. A dose de DCD utilizada foi de 7 kg ha-1, misturada aos DLB instantes antes da aplicação no solo. A injeção dos DLB no solo mostrou-se eficiente na redução de emissões de N-NH3 para a atmosfera, tanto no trigo, como no milho. A eficiência da injeção foi maximizada quando combinada com DCD, aumentando a retenção de N-NH4 + no solo e a recuperação aparente de N (103%), a eficiência agronômica do N aplicado com os DLB e a produtividade das culturas em comparação à aplicação superficial. O melhor desempenho das culturas ocorreu no tratamento com a injeção (DLBi + DCD), garantindo maior disponibilidade de N às plantas. Diante desses resultados, a injeção dos dejetos líquidos de bovinos mais a dicianodiamida no solo em SPD, constitui uma alternativa de manejo promissora, em relação à aplicação na superfície do solo, quanto a EUN, produtividade e parâmetros de planta no trigo e milho bem como na redução de emissão de N-NH3.

The greenhouse gases (GHG) emission in annual crops depends on soil conditions, climate and management of each site. Even the importance of no-till system in the grain production in the southern region of the country, the agricultural practices effect in the emission of the main greenhouse gases (CO2, N¬O and CH4) it is still little known, especially in Latossolos. Even more scarce are the works involving the use of pig slurry (PS) as fertilizer, the injection of PS or the use of nitrification inhibitors on GHG emissions under these conditions. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the GHG emissions in a Latossolo that is representative of Planalto of Rio Grande do Sul, in response to PS application method (injection x surface application) with or without the use of nitrification inhibitor Dicyandiamide (DCD). A field experiment was conducted in a Latossolo Vermelho aluminoférrico típico, near UFSM Campus in Frederico Westphalen, RS, from June 2014 to April 2015 with the wheat/corn no-till cropping system. The experimental was a randomized block design with four replicates with the following treatments: control (TEST), Mineral fertilizer (NPK), liquid pig slurry (PS) applied to surface (SUP), PS applied on surface with nitrification inhibitor DCD (SUP + IN), DLS injected into the soil (INJ) and PS injected with DCD (INJ + IN). GHG emissions were evaluated by static cameras, with GHG concentrations determined by gas chromatography . Most of the emissions of CO2 and N2O occurred in the summer during maize crop. The PS application increased N2O emission five times compared with TEST, regardless of PS application method. When DCD is used with manure N2O emissions were reduced by 50% with PS surface application and 32% when it was injected into the soil. The N2O emission factor ranged from 0,08 to 0.66% and it is lower than the average of 1 % of N applied established by IPCC. The CO2 emission was not affected by manure application during wheat crop season while increase until 69% in maize crop season. The higher emission was in SUP treatment and we realize that occurred additive effect of reapplication treatments. The soil is a CH4 sink independent treatment, with an average uptake of 277 g C-CH4 ha-1 in wheat crop and 266 g C-CH4 ha-1 in maize crop. The results of this study indicate that PS injection in Latossolo at a wheat/corn no-till cropping system does not increases the emission of CO2, N2O and CH4 in relation to surface application. Also, the addition of nitrification inhibitor DCD to PS helps to mitigate N2O emissions, regardless of the PS application method. / A emissão de gases de efeito estufa (GEE) em cultivos anuais depende das condições do solo, clima e do manejo de cada local. Apesar da importância na produção de grãos e do sistema de plantio direto (SPD) na região Sul do País, o efeito de práticas agrícolas sobre a emissão dos principais gases de efeito estufa (CO2, N2O e CH4) ainda é pouco conhecido, sobretudo em Latossolos. Ainda mais escassos são os trabalhos envolvendo o uso de dejetos líquidos de suínos (DLS) como fertilizante, a injeção dos DLS ou o uso de inibidores de nitrificação sobre a emissão de GEE nessas condições. Este trabalho foi realizado com o objetivo de avaliar a emissão de GEE em um Latossolo representativo do Planaltodo Rio Grande do Sul, em resposta ao modo de aplicação dos DLS (injeção x aplicação superficial) associado ou não ao uso do inibidor de nitrificação dicianodiamida (DCD). Um experimento de campo foi conduzido em um Latossolo Vermelho aluminoférrico típico, junto ao campus da UFSM em Frederico Westphalen, RS, de junho de 2014 a abril de 2015 com a sucessão trigo/milho em SPD. O delineamento experimental foi de blocos ao acaso, com quatro repetições dos seguintes tratamentos: Testemunha (TEST), Adubação Mineral (NPK),Dejetos líquidos de suínos (DLS) aplicados em superfície (SUP), DLS aplicados em superfície, com inibidor de nitrificação DCD (SUP+IN),DLS injetados no solo (INJ) e DLS injetados, com DCD (INJ+IN). As emissões de GEE foram avaliadas através de câmaras estáticas, com as concentrações de GEE determinadas por cromatografia gasosa. A maior parte das emissões de CO2 e N2O ocorreu no verão, durante o cultivo de milho. A aplicação dos DLS aumentou a emissão de N2O em relação tratamento TEST em cinco vezes, independente do modo de aplicação. Com o uso da DCD as emissões de N2O foram reduzidas em 50% com a aplicação superficial dos DLS e em 32% com a sua injeção no solo. O fator de emissão de N2O variou de 0,08 a 0,66%, sendo inferior ao estabelecido pelo IPCC, de 1% do N aplicado. A emissão de CO2 não foi afetada pela adição de dejetos no primeiro cultivo e sofreu incremento de até 69% no cultivo de milho, com a maior emissão no tratamento SUP, indicando efeito aditivo da reaplicação dos tratamentos. O solo atuou como dreno de CH4 independente do tratamento, com influxo médio de C-CH4 de 277 g ha- 1 no cultivo de trigo e 266 g ha-1 no milho. Os resultados deste trabalho indicam que a injeção dos DLS em Latossolo, na sucessão trigo/milho em SPD, não aumenta a emissão de CO2, N2O e CH4 em relação à aplicação superficial e que a adição do inibidor de nitrificação DCD aos DLS contribui para mitigar as emissões de N2O, independentemente do modo de aplicação dos DLS no solo.

Manure contains nutrients for crop growth; however, overapplication, with time, can result in excess nutrients in soil, which can subsequently be lost in surface runoff. <p>The general purpose of this research is to study the effect of liquid hog manure, applied as an agricultural fertilizer, on water chemistry of surface runoff from rainfall simulation tests. Specifically the research focuses on runoff water chemistry comparisons between lands receiving hog manure at different rates, via different injection methods, and upon different slope positions. <p>To examine these objectives, soil nutrient supply rates (P, NH4-N, and NO3-N) of the 0 5 cm depth of soil adjacent to rainfall simulation positions, and runoff water chemistry (TP, OP, NH4-N, NO3-N, DOC, Cl- and coliforms) during rainfall simulation tests were collected before and after manure addition. <p> Generally, manure application did increase soil NH4-N and NO3-N supply rates, and runoff NH4-N concentration. Soil P supply rate and runoff TP concentration were not affected by the manure addition; however, runoff OP concentration at one site (Perdue) increased significantly due to manure addition. The manure treatments applied in this study did not cause any significant increases in fecal or total coliform in runoff from rainfall simulation tests conducted 7 8 months after manure application. None of the water quality parameters exceeded the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. <p> Manure injection method (regular versus low soil surface disturbance) had consistent effects on runoff chemistry, but application rate did not. The regular disturbance method had significantly higher concentrations of water quality parameters than the low disturbance method. <p> The position of the test on the slope did not result in any consistent trends in runoff chemistry, whether before or after manure addition. Foot slope positions had higher soil NH4-N supply rates than upper slope positions, both before and after manure addition. Soil NH4-N, NO3-N, and P supply rates between landscape positions were not likely influenced by manure addition. <p> Regression tests between soil nutrient supply rates and runoff chemistry indicate that soil NH4-N supply rates are a good index to predict runoff NH4-N concentration, but soil P did not predict runoff P.

Manure contains nutrients for crop growth; however, overapplication, with time, can result in excess nutrients in soil, which can subsequently be lost in surface runoff. <p>The general purpose of this research is to study the effect of liquid hog manure, applied as an agricultural fertilizer, on water chemistry of surface runoff from rainfall simulation tests. Specifically the research focuses on runoff water chemistry comparisons between lands receiving hog manure at different rates, via different injection methods, and upon different slope positions. <p>To examine these objectives, soil nutrient supply rates (P, NH4-N, and NO3-N) of the 0 5 cm depth of soil adjacent to rainfall simulation positions, and runoff water chemistry (TP, OP, NH4-N, NO3-N, DOC, Cl- and coliforms) during rainfall simulation tests were collected before and after manure addition. <p> Generally, manure application did increase soil NH4-N and NO3-N supply rates, and runoff NH4-N concentration. Soil P supply rate and runoff TP concentration were not affected by the manure addition; however, runoff OP concentration at one site (Perdue) increased significantly due to manure addition. The manure treatments applied in this study did not cause any significant increases in fecal or total coliform in runoff from rainfall simulation tests conducted 7 8 months after manure application. None of the water quality parameters exceeded the Guidelines for Canadian Drinking Water Quality. <p> Manure injection method (regular versus low soil surface disturbance) had consistent effects on runoff chemistry, but application rate did not. The regular disturbance method had significantly higher concentrations of water quality parameters than the low disturbance method. <p> The position of the test on the slope did not result in any consistent trends in runoff chemistry, whether before or after manure addition. Foot slope positions had higher soil NH4-N supply rates than upper slope positions, both before and after manure addition. Soil NH4-N, NO3-N, and P supply rates between landscape positions were not likely influenced by manure addition. <p> Regression tests between soil nutrient supply rates and runoff chemistry indicate that soil NH4-N supply rates are a good index to predict runoff NH4-N concentration, but soil P did not predict runoff P.